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=== [[Medieval Philosophy]] ===

=== [[Medieval Philosophy]] ===

Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with the nature of God, and the application of [[Aristotle]]'s [[term logic|logic]] and thought to every area of life.

Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with the nature of God, and the application of [[Aristotle]]'s [[term logic|logic]] and thought to every area of life.

The [[18th-century philosophy]] article deals with the period often called the early part of "The Enlightenment" in the shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s natural philosophy. Thus [[Diderot]], [[Voltaire]], [[Rousseau]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Kant]] and the political philosophies embodied by and influencing the [[American Revolution]] are part of [[The Enlightenment]].  Other prominent philosophers of this time period were [[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]], who, along with [[Francis Hutcheson]], were also the primary philosophers of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].

The [[18th-century philosophy]] article deals with the period often called the early part of "The Enlightenment" in the shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s natural philosophy. Thus [[Diderot]], [[Voltaire]], [[Rousseau]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Kant]] and the political philosophies embodied by and influencing the [[American Revolution]] are part of [[The Enlightenment]].  Other prominent philosophers of this time period were [[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]], who, along with [[Francis Hutcheson]], were also the primary philosophers of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].

The [[19th-century philosophy|19th century]] took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

The [[19th-century philosophy|19th century]] took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

=== [[Contemporary Philosophy]] ===

=== [[Contemporary Philosophy]] ===

The [[20th-century philosophy|20th century]] deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietszche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. [[Epistemology]] (theory of knowledge) and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[poststructuralism]] ([[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of "pop" philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world but were isolated philosophically, including [[Ayn Rand]]. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of [[Aristotelianism]].

The [[20th-century philosophy|20th century]] deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietszche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. [[Epistemology]] (theory of knowledge) and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[poststructuralism]] ([[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of "pop" philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world but were isolated philosophically, including [[Ayn Rand]]. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of [[Aristotelianism]].

== [[Eastern philosophy]] ==

== [[Eastern philosophy]] ==

In [[Western culture|the West]], the term [[Eastern philosophy]] refers very broadly to the various [[philosophy|philosophies]] of "the East," namely [[Asia]], including [[China]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that these countries do not belong to a single culture.

In [[Western culture|the West]], the term [[Eastern philosophy]] refers very broadly to the various [[philosophy|philosophies]] of "the East," namely [[Asia]], including [[China]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that these countries do not belong to a single culture.

Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in [[India]] and [[China]]. The Indian or Hindu schools of philosophy can be considered the oldest schools of philosophy - they predate Greek philosophy by almost 500 years. Hindu philosophy primarily begins with [[Upanishad]]s, which can be dated close to 800 BC. The oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the eighth century BCE. The philosophical edifice of Indian religions viz., [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. Hindu philosophy is followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies.  

Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in [[India]] and [[China]]. The Indian or Hindu schools of philosophy can be considered the oldest schools of philosophy - they predate Greek philosophy by almost 500 years. Hindu philosophy primarily begins with [[Upanishad]]s, which can be dated close to 800 BC. The oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the eighth century BCE. The philosophical edifice of Indian religions viz., [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. Hindu philosophy is followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies.  

[[Confucianism]] can be considered as the oldest school of philosophy in China. Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism developed in India. Another school of philosophy,  [[Taoism]], developed in China around 200 BC.

[[Confucianism]] can be considered as the oldest school of philosophy in China. Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism developed in India. Another school of philosophy,  [[Taoism]], developed in China around 200 BC.