Changes

==Origin==

==Origin==

[http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._1100-1500_.09THE_MIDDLE_ENGLISH_PERIOD Middle English], from [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._600-1100.09THE_OLD_ENGLISH.2C_OR_ANGLO-SAXON_PERIOD Old English] plōh hide of [[land]]; akin to Old High German pfluog plow

[https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._1100-1500_.09THE_MIDDLE_ENGLISH_PERIOD Middle English], from [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._600-1100.09THE_OLD_ENGLISH.2C_OR_ANGLO-SAXON_PERIOD Old English] plōh hide of [[land]]; akin to Old High German pfluog plow

*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th_century 12th Century]

*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12th_century 12th Century]

[[Immediate]] [[origin]] uncertain; apparently either cognate with, or borrowed from one of, the following forms in other Germanic languages: Old Frisian plōch, plōg (West Frisian ploege, ploech, North Frisian pluwge), Middle Dutch ploech (Dutch ploeg), Middle Low German plōch, plūch, Old High German phluog (8th cent.; Middle High German phluoc, German Pflug), Old Icelandic plógr (in the poem Rígsþula, which was perhaps composed in the 10th cent., but shows probable reworking, perhaps in England, in the 11th cent.; also in Skaldic [[poetry]] of the mid 11th cent.), Norn (Shetland) plug, Old Swedish plogher (Swedish plog), Old Danish plogh (Danish plov), all in sense ‘plough’; the Germanic [[words]] are apparently related also to post-classical [[Latin]] plovum (mid 7th cent.), Italian regional (northern) piò, and perhaps also to classical Latin plaumorati (in an isolated attestation in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny Pliny], where it is apparently a loanword, and refers to a new type of plough with two wheels in use in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul Gaul]; the word is sometimes regarded as plural (or genitive singular) and a (nominative) singular plaumoratum constructed, but the [[context]] is unclear). Further etymology unknown.

[[Immediate]] [[origin]] uncertain; apparently either cognate with, or borrowed from one of, the following forms in other Germanic languages: Old Frisian plōch, plōg (West Frisian ploege, ploech, North Frisian pluwge), Middle Dutch ploech (Dutch ploeg), Middle Low German plōch, plūch, Old High German phluog (8th cent.; Middle High German phluoc, German Pflug), Old Icelandic plógr (in the poem Rígsþula, which was perhaps composed in the 10th cent., but shows probable reworking, perhaps in England, in the 11th cent.; also in Skaldic [[poetry]] of the mid 11th cent.), Norn (Shetland) plug, Old Swedish plogher (Swedish plog), Old Danish plogh (Danish plov), all in sense ‘plough’; the Germanic [[words]] are apparently related also to post-classical [[Latin]] plovum (mid 7th cent.), Italian regional (northern) piò, and perhaps also to classical Latin plaumorati (in an isolated attestation in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny Pliny], where it is apparently a loanword, and refers to a new type of plough with two wheels in use in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul Gaul]; the word is sometimes regarded as plural (or genitive singular) and a (nominative) singular plaumoratum constructed, but the [[context]] is unclear). Further etymology unknown.

In [[formal]] terms, there is nothing to rule out the [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._600-1100.09THE_OLD_ENGLISH.2C_OR_ANGLO-SAXON_PERIOD Old English] word's being inherited from Germanic, rather than borrowed (either from another West Germanic language, or from early Scandinavian); however, it is not found at all in Old English in the (probably basic) sense 3a, and senses 1a and 2a are both rare and late in Old English. Earlier currency of the [[word]]is probably implied by (rare) Old English plōgesland, plōgalandploughland n.; compare also Old English plōgagang (see plough-gang n.). It is notable that the earlier Old English word for the agricultural implement at 3a, sulh, [[survived]] in western and south-western English [[dialects]] (those spoken in the areas least [[influenced]] by Norse settlers) as sullow n., and it has often been assumed that the present word is a borrowing from early Scandinavian, earliest in the Danelaw areas.

In [[formal]] terms, there is nothing to rule out the [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._600-1100.09THE_OLD_ENGLISH.2C_OR_ANGLO-SAXON_PERIOD Old English] word's being inherited from Germanic, rather than borrowed (either from another West Germanic language, or from early Scandinavian); however, it is not found at all in Old English in the (probably basic) sense 3a, and senses 1a and 2a are both rare and late in Old English. Earlier currency of the [[word]]is probably implied by (rare) Old English plōgesland, plōgalandploughland n.; compare also Old English plōgagang (see plough-gang n.). It is notable that the earlier Old English word for the agricultural implement at 3a, sulh, [[survived]] in western and south-western English [[dialects]] (those spoken in the areas least [[influenced]] by Norse settlers) as sullow n., and it has often been assumed that the present word is a borrowing from early Scandinavian, earliest in the Danelaw areas.

   

   

However, the [[word]] also does not appear to be early in the Scandinavian languages, where the earlier name appears to have been arðr (cognate with Old Saxon erida; < the Germanic base of ear v.1), which [[survives]] in Norwegian as ar a small plough (compare ard n.; hence perhaps originally denoting an earlier and simpler implement than the plógr), and it has been suggested by some [[scholars]] that the early Scandinavian word was in [[fact]] a borrowing from Old English. The word is also not found in Gothic, which has hoha. It is perhaps most likely that the word occurred earliest in continental West Germanic (but not English, and not originally in either East Germanic or North Germanic), and was borrowed thence, either directly or indirectly, into both Old English and early Scandinavian. However, even this much is far from certain.

However, the [[word]] also does not appear to be early in the Scandinavian languages, where the earlier name appears to have been arðr (cognate with Old Saxon erida; < the Germanic base of ear v.1), which [[survives]] in Norwegian as ar a small plough (compare ard n.; hence perhaps originally denoting an earlier and simpler implement than the plógr), and it has been suggested by some [[scholars]] that the early Scandinavian word was in [[fact]] a borrowing from Old English. The word is also not found in Gothic, which has hoha. It is perhaps most likely that the word occurred earliest in continental West Germanic (but not English, and not originally in either East Germanic or North Germanic), and was borrowed thence, either directly or indirectly, into both Old English and early Scandinavian. However, even this much is far from certain.

In [[support]] of an etymological [[connection]] with the Germanic base of German pflegen attention has been drawn to Old Frisian plōch, plōg gainful employment, gain, [[profit]], [[community]] of interests, Middle Dutch ploech division of a [[society]], heap of [[things]], Middle High German phluoc [[business]], living, income, Old Icelandic plógr gain, produce; however, it has also been argued that these show a separate homonym, unrelated in origin to the [[word]] for ‘plough’.

In [[support]] of an etymological [[connection]] with the Germanic base of German pflegen attention has been drawn to Old Frisian plōch, plōg gainful employment, gain, [[profit]], [[community]] of interests, Middle Dutch ploech division of a [[society]], heap of [[things]], Middle High German phluoc [[business]], living, income, Old Icelandic plógr gain, produce; however, it has also been argued that these show a separate homonym, unrelated in origin to the [[word]] for ‘plough’.

   

   

As regards the developments shown by the forms of the [[word]] within [[English]], the regular [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._600-1100.09THE_OLD_ENGLISH.2C_OR_ANGLO-SAXON_PERIOD Old English] inflection of plōh (also, with failure of devoicing of the final consonant, plōg) would be dative plōge, genitive plōges, nominative plural plōgas, giving in early [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._1100-1500_.09THE_MIDDLE_ENGLISH_PERIOD Middle English] ploh, ploȝe, ploȝes, and in later Middle English singular plouh, plowh, or plowgh, plural plowes; as these became homophonous in [[modern]] English there is levelling of the spellings to either plough, ploughs, or plow, plows; the former has been the [[accepted]] spelling in England since approximately 1700, while the latter is usual in the U.S. In pronunciation, the final consonant was lost in some districts in the 14th cent., and has quite disappeared not only in the [[standard]] [[language]], but in all [[dialects]] south of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_District Peak of Derbyshire]; it remains in parts of Scotland as /x/ (pleuch, pluich = /pløx/ /plʏx/ ), and in the north of England (if it is retained) it has generally developed to /f/ . In plough v. forms with retention of the final consonant are not found; in the noun, they perhaps result from early loss of final unstressed vowels, limiting the [[influence]] of the forms of the oblique cases.

As regards the developments shown by the forms of the [[word]] within [[English]], the regular [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._600-1100.09THE_OLD_ENGLISH.2C_OR_ANGLO-SAXON_PERIOD Old English] inflection of plōh (also, with failure of devoicing of the final consonant, plōg) would be dative plōge, genitive plōges, nominative plural plōgas, giving in early [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=English#ca._1100-1500_.09THE_MIDDLE_ENGLISH_PERIOD Middle English] ploh, ploȝe, ploȝes, and in later Middle English singular plouh, plowh, or plowgh, plural plowes; as these became homophonous in [[modern]] English there is levelling of the spellings to either plough, ploughs, or plow, plows; the former has been the [[accepted]] spelling in England since approximately 1700, while the latter is usual in the U.S. In pronunciation, the final consonant was lost in some districts in the 14th cent., and has quite disappeared not only in the [[standard]] [[language]], but in all [[dialects]] south of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_District Peak of Derbyshire]; it remains in parts of Scotland as /x/ (pleuch, pluich = /pløx/ /plʏx/ ), and in the north of England (if it is retained) it has generally developed to /f/ . In plough v. forms with retention of the final consonant are not found; in the noun, they perhaps result from early loss of final unstressed vowels, limiting the [[influence]] of the forms of the oblique cases.

==Definitions==

==Definitions==

*1: In northern and eastern areas of England and Scotland: the [[name]] given to a unit of [[land]] capable of being tilled by a team of oxen in a year

*1: In northern and eastern areas of England and Scotland: the [[name]] given to a unit of [[land]] capable of being tilled by a team of oxen in a year