Changes

=== Origin ===

=== Origin ===

The scientific study of [[human]] [[evolution]] encompasses the development of the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', but usually involves studying other [[hominidae|hominids]] and [[homininae|hominines]] as well, such as ''[[Australopithecus]]''. "Modern humans" are defined as the ''Homo sapiens''  [[species]], of which the only extant [[subspecies]] is ''Homo sapiens sapiens''; ''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' (roughly translated as "elder wise human"), the other known subspecies, is extinct. [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/#] Anatomically modern humans appear in the fossil record in Africa about 130,000 years ago.[http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm]  

The scientific study of [[human]] [[evolution]] encompasses the development of the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', but usually involves studying other [[hominidae|hominids]] and [[homininae|hominines]] as well, such as ''[[Australopithecus]]''. "Modern humans" are defined as the ''Homo sapiens''  [[species]], of which the only extant [[subspecies]] is ''Homo sapiens sapiens''; ''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' (roughly translated as "elder wise human"), the other known subspecies, is extinct. [https://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/#] Anatomically modern humans appear in the fossil record in Africa about 130,000 years ago.[https://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/sap.htm]  

----

----

<center>see the documentary film: [http://www.becominghuman.org/ '''''Becoming Human''''']</center>

<center>see the documentary film: [https://www.becominghuman.org/ '''''Becoming Human''''']</center>

----

----

The closest living relatives of ''Homo sapiens'' are two distinct species of the genus Pan: the [[Bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') and the [[Common Chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes''). These species share the same common ancestor. The main difference between them is the social organization: [[matriarchal]] for the Bonobo and [[patriarchal]] for the Common Chimpanzee. Full [[genome]] sequencing resulted in the conclusion that "after 6.5 [[million]]&nbsp;years of separate evolution, the differences between bonobo/chimpanzee and human are just 10 times greater than those between two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice". In fact, 95 per cent of the DNA sequence is identical between the two ''Pan'' species and human.[[Frans de Waal]], ''Bonobo'' ISBN 0-520-20535-9 [http://www.2think.org/bonobo.shtml] [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/21/13633] [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/12/7181][http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/3/248]| It has been estimated that the human [[lineage (evolution)|lineage]] diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million&nbsp;years ago, and from [[gorilla]]s about  eight million&nbsp;years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in [[Chad]] in 2001, classified as ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', is approximately seven million&nbsp;years old, which may indicate an earlier divergence. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6894/full/nature00879.html]  

The closest living relatives of ''Homo sapiens'' are two distinct species of the genus Pan: the [[Bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'') and the [[Common Chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes''). These species share the same common ancestor. The main difference between them is the social organization: [[matriarchal]] for the Bonobo and [[patriarchal]] for the Common Chimpanzee. Full [[genome]] sequencing resulted in the conclusion that "after 6.5 [[million]]&nbsp;years of separate evolution, the differences between bonobo/chimpanzee and human are just 10 times greater than those between two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice". In fact, 95 per cent of the DNA sequence is identical between the two ''Pan'' species and human.[[Frans de Waal]], ''Bonobo'' ISBN 0-520-20535-9 [https://www.2think.org/bonobo.shtml] [https://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/21/13633] [https://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/12/7181][https://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/3/248]| It has been estimated that the human [[lineage (evolution)|lineage]] diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million&nbsp;years ago, and from [[gorilla]]s about  eight million&nbsp;years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in [[Chad]] in 2001, classified as ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', is approximately seven million&nbsp;years old, which may indicate an earlier divergence. [https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6894/full/nature00879.html]  

The [[Recent African Origin]] (RAO), or "out-of-Africa", hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa and later [[human migration|migrated]] outwards to replace hominids in other parts of the world. Evidence from [[Archaeogenetics]] accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to RAO and has marginalized the  competing [[multiregional hypothesis]],  which proposed that modern humans evolved, at least in part, from independent hominid populations. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WJS-4G3SC6X-1/2/aae7c2810f0d87628e228363c0e1bd66]  

The [[Recent African Origin]] (RAO), or "out-of-Africa", hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa and later [[human migration|migrated]] outwards to replace hominids in other parts of the world. Evidence from [[Archaeogenetics]] accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to RAO and has marginalized the  competing [[multiregional hypothesis]],  which proposed that modern humans evolved, at least in part, from independent hominid populations. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WJS-4G3SC6X-1/2/aae7c2810f0d87628e228363c0e1bd66]  

Geneticists Lynn Jorde and [[Henry Harpending]] of the [[University of Utah]] proposed that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also propose that during the [[Late Pleistocene]], the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs — no more than 10,000 and possibly as few as 1,000 — resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one of those is the [[Toba catastrophe theory]].

Geneticists Lynn Jorde and [[Henry Harpending]] of the [[University of Utah]] proposed that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also propose that during the [[Late Pleistocene]], the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs — no more than 10,000 and possibly as few as 1,000 — resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one of those is the [[Toba catastrophe theory]].

=== Rise of civilization ===

=== Rise of civilization ===

The most widely accepted view among current [[anthropology|anthropologists]] is that ''Homo sapiens'' originated in the African [[savanna]] around 200,000 BP ([[Before Present]]), descending from ''[[Homo erectus]]'', had inhabited [[Eurasia]] and [[Oceania]] by 40,000 BP, and finally inhabited the [[Americas]] approximately 10,000&nbsp;years ago. [http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Templeton_02.html "Out of Africa again and again"] They displaced ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' and other species descended from ''Homo erectus'' (which had inhabited Eurasia as early as 2 million&nbsp;years ago) through more successful reproduction and competition for resources.

The most widely accepted view among current [[anthropology|anthropologists]] is that ''Homo sapiens'' originated in the African [[savanna]] around 200,000 BP ([[Before Present]]), descending from ''[[Homo erectus]]'', had inhabited [[Eurasia]] and [[Oceania]] by 40,000 BP, and finally inhabited the [[Americas]] approximately 10,000&nbsp;years ago. [https://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Templeton_02.html "Out of Africa again and again"] They displaced ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' and other species descended from ''Homo erectus'' (which had inhabited Eurasia as early as 2 million&nbsp;years ago) through more successful reproduction and competition for resources.

Up until only around 10,000 years ago, all humans lived as [[hunter-gatherer]]s (with some communities persisting until this day). They generally lived in small, [[nomad]]ic groups. The advent of [[agriculture]] prompted the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the [[domestication]] of animals, and the use of [[metalworking|metal tools]]. Agriculture also encouraged [[trade]] and cooperation, leading to complex societies. [[Village]]s developed into thriving [[civilization]]s in regions such as the [[Middle East]]'s [[Fertile Crescent]].

Up until only around 10,000 years ago, all humans lived as [[hunter-gatherer]]s (with some communities persisting until this day). They generally lived in small, [[nomad]]ic groups. The advent of [[agriculture]] prompted the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the [[domestication]] of animals, and the use of [[metalworking|metal tools]]. Agriculture also encouraged [[trade]] and cooperation, leading to complex societies. [[Village]]s developed into thriving [[civilization]]s in regions such as the [[Middle East]]'s [[Fertile Crescent]].

Human habitation within [[closed ecological system]]s in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the [[exploration of the Moon|Moon]]. [[As of 2007]], no other celestial body has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in outer space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the [[International Space Station]] on [[October 31]], [[2000]]; however, humans have made [[robot]]s that have visited other celestial bodies.

Human habitation within [[closed ecological system]]s in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the [[exploration of the Moon|Moon]]. [[As of 2007]], no other celestial body has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in outer space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the [[International Space Station]] on [[October 31]], [[2000]]; however, humans have made [[robot]]s that have visited other celestial bodies.

From AD 1800 to 2000, the human population increased from one billion to six billion. In 2004, around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in [[urban area]]s, and this percentage is expected to rise throughout the 21st century. Problems for humans living in [[city|cities]] include various forms of [[pollution]] and [[crime]],[http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/usrv98.htm] especially in inner city and suburban slums. Benefits of urban living include increased literacy, access to the global canon of human knowledge and decreased susceptibility to rural [[famines]].

From AD 1800 to 2000, the human population increased from one billion to six billion. In 2004, around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in [[urban area]]s, and this percentage is expected to rise throughout the 21st century. Problems for humans living in [[city|cities]] include various forms of [[pollution]] and [[crime]],[https://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/usrv98.htm] especially in inner city and suburban slums. Benefits of urban living include increased literacy, access to the global canon of human knowledge and decreased susceptibility to rural [[famines]].

Humans have had a dramatic effect on the [[natural environment|environment]]. It has been hypothesized that in the past, human predation has contributed to the extinction of a number of species; as humans are not generally preyed on themselves, humans have been described as the ultimate [[apex predator|superpredators]].'[[Scientific American]]'' [http://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/346IQ.html Evolution and General Intelligence: Three hypotheses on the evolution of general intelligence]. Currently, through land development and [[pollution]], humans are thought to be the main contributor to global [[climate change]]. [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm] This is believed to be a major contributor to the ongoing [[Holocene extinction event]], a [[extinction event|mass extinction]] which, if it continues at its current rate, is predicted to wipe out half of all species over the next century.<ref>[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. [http://atlas.aaas.org/index.php?sub=foreword Foreword]. ''AAAS Atlas of Population & Environment''. [[E. O. Wilson|Wilson, E.O.]] (2002). ''in The Future of Life''.</ref>

Humans have had a dramatic effect on the [[natural environment|environment]]. It has been hypothesized that in the past, human predation has contributed to the extinction of a number of species; as humans are not generally preyed on themselves, humans have been described as the ultimate [[apex predator|superpredators]].'[[Scientific American]]'' [https://www.csulb.edu/~kmacd/346IQ.html Evolution and General Intelligence: Three hypotheses on the evolution of general intelligence]. Currently, through land development and [[pollution]], humans are thought to be the main contributor to global [[climate change]]. [https://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm] This is believed to be a major contributor to the ongoing [[Holocene extinction event]], a [[extinction event|mass extinction]] which, if it continues at its current rate, is predicted to wipe out half of all species over the next century.<ref>[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]. [https://atlas.aaas.org/index.php?sub=foreword Foreword]. ''AAAS Atlas of Population & Environment''. [[E. O. Wilson|Wilson, E.O.]] (2002). ''in The Future of Life''.</ref>

== Biology ==

== Biology ==

=== Physiology and genetics ===

=== Physiology and genetics ===

Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by [[gene]]s, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[exercise]]. The average [[human height|height]] of an adult human is about 5 to 6&nbsp;[[foot (length)|feet]] (1.5 to 1.8 m) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006. [http://www.answers.com/topic/pygmy] Humans are capable of fully bipedal [[terrestrial locomotion in animals|locomotion]], thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their [[hand]]s, aided especially by opposable [[thumb]]s.  

Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by [[gene]]s, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[exercise]]. The average [[human height|height]] of an adult human is about 5 to 6&nbsp;[[foot (length)|feet]] (1.5 to 1.8 m) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2006. [https://www.answers.com/topic/pygmy] Humans are capable of fully bipedal [[terrestrial locomotion in animals|locomotion]], thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their [[hand]]s, aided especially by opposable [[thumb]]s.  

Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to other primates, with notable [[hair]] growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more [[hair follicles]] on his or her body than the average [[chimpanzee]]. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.<ref>[http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/966532/posts ''Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Way'' by Nicholas Wade, ''New York Times'',

Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to other primates, with notable [[hair]] growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more [[hair follicles]] on his or her body than the average [[chimpanzee]]. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.<ref>[https://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/966532/posts ''Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Way'' by Nicholas Wade, ''New York Times'',

The hue of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of [[pigment]]s called [[melanin]]s. Human skin hues can range from very dark brown to very pale pink, while human hair ranges from [[blond]] to [[brown hair|brown]] to [[red hair|red]] to, most commonly, [[black hair|black]]., depending on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a protection against [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]]. More recently, however, it has been argued that particular skin colors are an adaptation to balance folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation, and vitamin D, which requires sunlight to form.[http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf]The evolution of human skin coloration]'' (pdf), 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57-106. The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin also has a capacity to darken ([[sun tanning]]) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.  

The hue of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of [[pigment]]s called [[melanin]]s. Human skin hues can range from very dark brown to very pale pink, while human hair ranges from [[blond]] to [[brown hair|brown]] to [[red hair|red]] to, most commonly, [[black hair|black]]., depending on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a protection against [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]]. More recently, however, it has been argued that particular skin colors are an adaptation to balance folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation, and vitamin D, which requires sunlight to form.[https://www.bgsu.edu/departments/chem/faculty/leontis/chem447/PDF_files/Jablonski_skin_color_2000.pdf]The evolution of human skin coloration]'' (pdf), 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57-106. The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin also has a capacity to darken ([[sun tanning]]) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.  

The average [[sleep]] requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies; this [[sleep deprivation]] can lead to negative effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.

The average [[sleep]] requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies; this [[sleep deprivation]] can lead to negative effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.

Compared with that of other species, human [[childbirth]] is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in injury, or even death, to the child and/or mother. This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively narrow [[pelvis]] (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection). The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and [[natural childbirth]] remain relatively hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times more common than in developed countries..  

Compared with that of other species, human [[childbirth]] is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in injury, or even death, to the child and/or mother. This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively narrow [[pelvis]] (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection). The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and [[natural childbirth]] remain relatively hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times more common than in developed countries..  

In developed countries, infants are typically 3 – 4 kg (6 – 9&nbsp;pounds) in weight and 50 – 60 cm (20 – 24&nbsp;inches) in height at birth.[http://childinfo.org/areas/birthweight/|title=Low Birthweight] However, low [[birth weight]] is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of [[infant mortality]] in these regions. Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching [[sexual maturity]] at 12 to 15&nbsp;years of age. Human [[girl]]s continue to grow physically until around the age of 18, and human [[boy]]s until around age 21. The human life span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, [[childhood]], [[adolescence]], [[young adulthood]], [[adult]]hood and [[old age]]. The lengths of these stages, however — particularly the later ones — are not fixed.

In developed countries, infants are typically 3 – 4 kg (6 – 9&nbsp;pounds) in weight and 50 – 60 cm (20 – 24&nbsp;inches) in height at birth.[https://childinfo.org/areas/birthweight/|title=Low Birthweight] However, low [[birth weight]] is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of [[infant mortality]] in these regions. Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching [[sexual maturity]] at 12 to 15&nbsp;years of age. Human [[girl]]s continue to grow physically until around the age of 18, and human [[boy]]s until around age 21. The human life span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, [[childhood]], [[adolescence]], [[young adulthood]], [[adult]]hood and [[old age]]. The lengths of these stages, however — particularly the later ones — are not fixed.

There are striking differences in [[life expectancy]] around the world. The developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40&nbsp;years (highest in [[Monaco]] at 45.1&nbsp;years), while in the [[third world|developing world]], the median age is 15 – 20 years (lowest in [[Uganda]] at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth in [[Hong Kong, China]] is 84.8 years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in [[Swaziland]], primarily because of [[AIDS]], it is 31.3 years for both sexes.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/ "Human Development Report 2006,"] [[United Nations Development Programme]], pp. 363-366, [[November 9]] [[2006]]</ref> While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older. [[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ ''The World Factbook'']]

There are striking differences in [[life expectancy]] around the world. The developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40&nbsp;years (highest in [[Monaco]] at 45.1&nbsp;years), while in the [[third world|developing world]], the median age is 15 – 20 years (lowest in [[Uganda]] at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth in [[Hong Kong, China]] is 84.8 years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in [[Swaziland]], primarily because of [[AIDS]], it is 31.3 years for both sexes.<ref>[https://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/ "Human Development Report 2006,"] [[United Nations Development Programme]], pp. 363-366, [[November 9]] [[2006]]</ref> While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older. [[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ ''The World Factbook'']]

The number of [[centenarian]]s (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the [[United Nations]] at 210,000 in 2002.<ref>[http://www.un.org/ageing/note5713.doc.htm U.N. Statistics on Population Ageing], United Nations press release, February 28, 2002, retrieved April 2, 2005</ref> At least one person, [[Jeanne Calment]], is known to have reached the age of 122 years; higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.

The number of [[centenarian]]s (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the [[United Nations]] at 210,000 in 2002.<ref>[https://www.un.org/ageing/note5713.doc.htm U.N. Statistics on Population Ageing], United Nations press release, February 28, 2002, retrieved April 2, 2005</ref> At least one person, [[Jeanne Calment]], is known to have reached the age of 122 years; higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.

The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after death are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of death causes unease or fear for most humans. [[Burial]] ceremonies are characteristic of human societies, often accompanied by beliefs in an [[afterlife]] or [[immortality]].

The philosophical questions of when human personhood begins and whether it persists after death are the subject of considerable debate. The prospect of death causes unease or fear for most humans. [[Burial]] ceremonies are characteristic of human societies, often accompanied by beliefs in an [[afterlife]] or [[immortality]].

Early ''Homo sapiens'' employed a hunter-gatherer method as their primary means of food collection, involving combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms) with wild game which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It is believed that humans have used fire to prepare and [[cooking|cook]] food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from ''[[Homo erectus]]''.  

Early ''Homo sapiens'' employed a hunter-gatherer method as their primary means of food collection, involving combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms) with wild game which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It is believed that humans have used fire to prepare and [[cooking|cook]] food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from ''[[Homo erectus]]''.  

Humans are [[omnivorous]], capable of consuming both plant and animal products. The view of humans as omnivores is supported by the evidence that both a pure animal and a pure vegetable diet can lead to [[deficiency diseases]] in humans. A pure animal diet can, for instance, lead to [[scurvy]], while a pure plant diet can lead to deficiency of a number of nutrients, including [[Vitamin B12]]. Supplementation, particularly for vitamin B12, is highly recommended for people living on a pure plant diet.[http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/]  However, according to [[American Dietetic Association]] and the [[Dietitians of Canada]], properly planned [[vegetarian]] and [[vegan]] diets are nutritionally adequate and healthy.[http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_933_ENU_HTML.htm]  

Humans are [[omnivorous]], capable of consuming both plant and animal products. The view of humans as omnivores is supported by the evidence that both a pure animal and a pure vegetable diet can lead to [[deficiency diseases]] in humans. A pure animal diet can, for instance, lead to [[scurvy]], while a pure plant diet can lead to deficiency of a number of nutrients, including [[Vitamin B12]]. Supplementation, particularly for vitamin B12, is highly recommended for people living on a pure plant diet.[https://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/]  However, according to [[American Dietetic Association]] and the [[Dietitians of Canada]], properly planned [[vegetarian]] and [[vegan]] diets are nutritionally adequate and healthy.[https://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_933_ENU_HTML.htm]  

The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of [[food science]].

The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of [[food science]].

In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. Lack of food remains a serious problem, with about 300,000 people starving to death every year.<ref>[http://www.who.int/healthinfo/bod/en/index.html Death and DALY estimates for 2002 by cause for WHO Member States] World Health Organisation. Accessed 29 Oct 2006</ref> Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and [[obesity]] among some human populations has increased to almost [[epidemic]] proportions, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some [[developed country|developed]], and a few [[developing countries]]. The United States [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) state that 32% of American adults over the age of 20 are obese, while 66.5% are obese or overweight. Obesity is caused by consuming more [[calorie]]s than are expended, with many attributing excessive weight gain to a combination of overeating and insufficient [[exercise]].

In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. Lack of food remains a serious problem, with about 300,000 people starving to death every year.<ref>[https://www.who.int/healthinfo/bod/en/index.html Death and DALY estimates for 2002 by cause for WHO Member States] World Health Organisation. Accessed 29 Oct 2006</ref> Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and [[obesity]] among some human populations has increased to almost [[epidemic]] proportions, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some [[developed country|developed]], and a few [[developing countries]]. The United States [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) state that 32% of American adults over the age of 20 are obese, while 66.5% are obese or overweight. Obesity is caused by consuming more [[calorie]]s than are expended, with many attributing excessive weight gain to a combination of overeating and insufficient [[exercise]].

At least ten thousand years ago, [[History of agriculture|humans developed agriculture]],<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/9707/newsbriefs/squash.html Earliest agriculture in the Americas]

At least ten thousand years ago, [[History of agriculture|humans developed agriculture]],<ref>[https://www.archaeology.org/9707/newsbriefs/squash.html Earliest agriculture in the Americas]

[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2007/213/2 Earliest cultivation of barley]

[https://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2007/213/2 Earliest cultivation of barley]

[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm Earliest cultivation of figs] - URLs retrieved [[February 19]], [[2007]]</ref> which has substantially altered the kind of food people eat. This has led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of [[infectious disease]]s. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture.

[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm Earliest cultivation of figs] - URLs retrieved [[February 19]], [[2007]]</ref> which has substantially altered the kind of food people eat. This has led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of [[infectious disease]]s. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture.

== Psychology ==

== Psychology ==

The [[human brain]] is the center of the [[central nervous system]] in humans, as well as the primary control center for the [[peripheral nervous system]]. The brain controls "lower", or involuntary, [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] activities such as the [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]], and [[digestion]]. The brain also controls "higher" order, conscious activities, such as [[thought]], [[reason]]ing, and [[abstraction]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html 3-D Brain Anatomy], ''The Secret Life of the Brain'', Public Broadcasting Service, retrieved [[April 3]] [[2005]].</ref> These [[mental function|cognitive processes]] constitute the [[mind]], and, along with their [[behavior]]al consequences, are studied in the field of [[psychology]].

The [[human brain]] is the center of the [[central nervous system]] in humans, as well as the primary control center for the [[peripheral nervous system]]. The brain controls "lower", or involuntary, [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] activities such as the [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]], and [[digestion]]. The brain also controls "higher" order, conscious activities, such as [[thought]], [[reason]]ing, and [[abstraction]].<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html 3-D Brain Anatomy], ''The Secret Life of the Brain'', Public Broadcasting Service, retrieved [[April 3]] [[2005]].</ref> These [[mental function|cognitive processes]] constitute the [[mind]], and, along with their [[behavior]]al consequences, are studied in the field of [[psychology]].

The human brain is generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, and more "[[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]]" in general, than that of any other species. While other animals are capable of creating structures and using simple tools — mostly as a result of [[instinct]] and learning through mimicry — human technology is vastly more complex, constantly evolving and improving with time. Even the most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by any other animal.<ref>[[Carl Sagan|Sagan, Carl]] (1978). ''[[The Dragons of Eden]]''. A Ballantine Book. ISBN 0-345-34629-7</ref>

The human brain is generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, and more "[[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]]" in general, than that of any other species. While other animals are capable of creating structures and using simple tools — mostly as a result of [[instinct]] and learning through mimicry — human technology is vastly more complex, constantly evolving and improving with time. Even the most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by any other animal.<ref>[[Carl Sagan|Sagan, Carl]] (1978). ''[[The Dragons of Eden]]''. A Ballantine Book. ISBN 0-345-34629-7</ref>

Modern [[Anthropology]] has tended to bear out [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] proposition that "the difference in mind between

Modern [[Anthropology]] has tended to bear out [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] proposition that "the difference in mind between

man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind".<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07">Jonathan Benthall ''[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x Animal liberation and rights]'' [[Anthropology Today]] Volume 23 Issue 2 Page 1 - April 2007</ref>

man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind".<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07">Jonathan Benthall ''[https://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x Animal liberation and rights]'' [[Anthropology Today]] Volume 23 Issue 2 Page 1 - April 2007</ref>

=== Consciousness and thought ===

=== Consciousness and thought ===

The human ability to think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Humans are one of only six species to pass the [[mirror test]] — which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself — along with [[chimpanzees]], [[orangutan]]s, [[dolphin]]s, and possibly [[dove|pigeons]]<ref>Robert W. Allan explores a few of these experiments on his webpage:

The human ability to think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Humans are one of only six species to pass the [[mirror test]] — which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself — along with [[chimpanzees]], [[orangutan]]s, [[dolphin]]s, and possibly [[dove|pigeons]]<ref>Robert W. Allan explores a few of these experiments on his webpage:

[http://ww2.lafayette.edu/~allanr/mirror.html]. In October 2006, three [[elephant]]s at the [[Bronx]] Zoo also passed this test. Humans under the age of 2 typically fail this test.[http://www.ulm.edu/~palmer/ConsciousnessandtheSymbolicUniverse.htm Consciousness and the Symbolic Universe], by Dr. Jack Palmer. However, this may be a matter of degree rather than a sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks.[http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/abstract-0718.html] Researchers home in on how brain handles abstract thought].

[https://ww2.lafayette.edu/~allanr/mirror.html]. In October 2006, three [[elephant]]s at the [[Bronx]] Zoo also passed this test. Humans under the age of 2 typically fail this test.[https://www.ulm.edu/~palmer/ConsciousnessandtheSymbolicUniverse.htm Consciousness and the Symbolic Universe], by Dr. Jack Palmer. However, this may be a matter of degree rather than a sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks.[https://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/abstract-0718.html] Researchers home in on how brain handles abstract thought].

The brain [[perception|perceives]] the external world through the [[sense]]s, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to [[subjectivity|subjective]] views of [[existence]] and the passage of [[time]].

The brain [[perception|perceives]] the external world through the [[sense]]s, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to [[subjectivity|subjective]] views of [[existence]] and the passage of [[time]].

=== Race and ethnicity ===

=== Race and ethnicity ===

Humans often categorize themselves in terms of [[race]] or [[ethnic group|ethnicity]], although the validity of human races as true biological categories is questionable.[http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1454.html] Human racial categories are based on both [[ancestry]] and visible [[trait (biological)|traits]], especially [[human skin color|skin color]] and facial features. These categories may also carry some information on non-visible biological traits, such as the risk of developing particular diseases such as [[sickle-cell disease]].[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=10712212] However, compared to many other animals, human gene sequences are remarkably homogeneous. It has been claimed that the majority of genetic variation occurs within "racial groups", with only 5 to 15% of total variation occurring between racial groups.[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16175499] However, this remains an area of active debate.

Humans often categorize themselves in terms of [[race]] or [[ethnic group|ethnicity]], although the validity of human races as true biological categories is questionable.[https://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1454.html] Human racial categories are based on both [[ancestry]] and visible [[trait (biological)|traits]], especially [[human skin color|skin color]] and facial features. These categories may also carry some information on non-visible biological traits, such as the risk of developing particular diseases such as [[sickle-cell disease]].[https://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=10712212] However, compared to many other animals, human gene sequences are remarkably homogeneous. It has been claimed that the majority of genetic variation occurs within "racial groups", with only 5 to 15% of total variation occurring between racial groups.[https://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16175499] However, this remains an area of active debate.

Ethnic groups, on the other hand, are more often linked by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, and national or regional ties. Self-identification with an ethnic group is based on [[kinship and descent]]. Race and ethnicity can lead to variant treatment and impact [[social identity]], giving rise to [[racism]] and the theory of [[identity politics]].

Ethnic groups, on the other hand, are more often linked by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, and national or regional ties. Self-identification with an ethnic group is based on [[kinship and descent]]. Race and ethnicity can lead to variant treatment and impact [[social identity]], giving rise to [[racism]] and the theory of [[identity politics]].

=== Government and politics ===

=== Government and politics ===

A [[state]] is an organized [[politics|political]] community occupying a definite territory, having an organized [[government]], and possessing internal and external [[sovereignty]]. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by [[Max Weber]], "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."<ref>[http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xweb.htm Max Weber's definition of the modern state 1918], by [[Max Weber]], 1918, retrieved [[March 17]], [[2006]].</ref>

A [[state]] is an organized [[politics|political]] community occupying a definite territory, having an organized [[government]], and possessing internal and external [[sovereignty]]. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by [[Max Weber]], "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."<ref>[https://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xweb.htm Max Weber's definition of the modern state 1918], by [[Max Weber]], 1918, retrieved [[March 17]], [[2006]].</ref>

[[Government]] can be defined as the [[politics|political]] means of creating and enforcing [[law]]s; typically via a [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] [[hierarchy]].

[[Government]] can be defined as the [[politics|political]] means of creating and enforcing [[law]]s; typically via a [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] [[hierarchy]].

== External links ==

== External links ==

* [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humanevolution/sapiens.html MNSU]

* [https://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humanevolution/sapiens.html MNSU]

* [http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/homosapiens.htm Archaeology Info]

* [https://www.archaeologyinfo.com/homosapiens.htm Archaeology Info]

* [http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=070824121653.65mgd37f Chororapithecus abyssinicus] Possible human-orangutan split 20 million years ago. (Aug 26 2007)

* [https://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=070824121653.65mgd37f Chororapithecus abyssinicus] Possible human-orangutan split 20 million years ago. (Aug 26 2007)

[[Category: Anthropology]]

[[Category: Anthropology]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]