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The Hebrew word '''Merkabah''' (מרכבה "chariot)", derived from the ''r-k-b'' with general meaning "to ride" is used in [[Ezekiel]] (1:4-26) to refer to the throne-chariot of [[God]], the four-wheeled vehicle driven by four "''chayot''" (Hebrew: "living creatures"), each of which has four wings and the four faces of a man, lion, ox, and eagle.
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word '''Merkabah''' ({{lang|he|מרכבה}} "[[chariot]]", derived from the [[Triliteral|consonantal root]] ''{{transl|sem|r-k-b}}'' with general meaning "to ride") is used in [[Ezekiel]] (1:4-26) to refer to the throne-chariot of [[God]], the four-wheeled vehicle driven by four "''[[chayot]]''" ([[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]]: "living creatures"), each of which has four wings and the four faces of a man, lion, ox, and eagle.
Several movements in [[Jewish mysticism]], including the '''''Ma’asei Merkavah''''' of the late Greco-Roman period following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., and later, students of the [[Kabbalah]], have focused on these passages from Ezekiel, seeking underlying meaning and the secrets of [[Creation]] in what they argued was the [[metaphor]]ic language of the verses. Due to the concern of some [[Torah]] scholars that misunderstanding these passages as literal decriptions of God's image might lead to [[blasphemy]] and/or [[idolatry]], there was great opposition to studying this topic without the proper initiation. Jewish biblical commentaries emphasize that the imagery of the Merkaba is not meant to be taken literally; rather the chariot and its accompanying angels are analogies for the various ways that God reveals Himself in this world.<ref>[[Maimonides]], in his "[[Jewish principles of faith#Maimonides' 13 principles of faith|Thirteen Principles of Faith]]," emphasizes that God is not limited to any particular form, as this prophesy might seem to imply.</ref> [[Hasidic philosophy]] and [[Kabbalah]] discuss at length what each aspect of this vision represents in this world, and how the vision does not imply that God is made up of these forms. [[Jew]]s customarily read the Biblical passages concerning the Merkaba in their [[synagogue]]s every year on the holiday of [[Shavuot]], and the Merkabah is also referenced in several places in traditional [[Jewish liturgy]].
Several movements in Jewish mysticism, including the '''''Ma’asei Merkavah''''' of the late Greco-Roman period following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., and later, students of the [[Kabbalah]], have focused on these passages from Ezekiel, seeking underlying meaning and the secrets of Creation in what they argued was the [[metaphor]]ic language of the verses. Due to the concern of some [[Torah]] scholars that misunderstanding these passages as literal decriptions of God's image might lead to blasphemy and/or idolatry, there was great opposition to studying this topic without the proper initiation. Jewish biblical commentaries emphasize that the imagery of the Merkaba is not meant to be taken literally; rather the chariot and its accompanying angels are analogies for the various ways that God reveals Himself in this world. [[Maimonides]], in his "Thirteen Principles of Faith", emphasizes that God is not limited to any particular form, as this prophesy might seem to imply. [[Hasidic]] philosophy and [[Kabbalah]] discuss at length what each aspect of this vision represents in this world, and how the vision does not imply that God is made up of these forms. Jews customarily read the Biblical passages concerning the Merkaba in their synagogues every year on the holiday of [[Shavuot]], and the Merkabah is also referenced in several places in traditional Jewish [[liturgy]].
In Christianity, the man, lion, ox, and eagle are used as symbols for the four [[evangelists]] (or gospel-writers), and appear frequently in church decorations. They also appear in the [[Tarot]] card [[The World (Tarot card)|"The World"]]. The creatures are called [[Zoë]] (or the [[Tetramorph]]), and continuously surround the throne of God in [[Heaven]], along with the twenty-four angelic rulers, the [[Seraphim]], the [[Cherubim]], the seven [[Archangels]], the [[Ophanim]], and countless angels, spirits, and saints, where they sing praises to the [[Trinity]], and beg [[Christ]] to have mercy on humankind.
In Christianity, the man, lion, ox, and eagle are used as symbols for the four evangelists (or gospel-writers), and appear frequently in church decorations. They also appear in the [[Tarot]] card "The World". The creatures are called Zoë (or the Tetramorph), and continuously surround the throne of God in [[Heaven]], along with the twenty-four angelic rulers, the [[Seraphim]], the [[Cherubim]], the seven [[Archangels]], the [[Ophanim]], and countless angels, spirits, and saints, where they sing praises to the [[Trinity]], and beg [[Christ Michael|Christ]] to have mercy on humankind.
==The Biblical Merkabah==
==The Biblical Merkabah==
According to the verses in Ezekiel and its attendant commentaries, the analogy of the Merkaba image consists of a chariot made of many angels being driven by the "Likeness of a Man." Four angels form the basic structure of the chariot. These angels are called the "[[Chayot]]" חיות (lit. living creatures). The bodies of the "Chayot" are like that of a human being, but each of them has four faces, corresponding to the four directions the chariot can go (north, east south and west). The faces are that of a man, a lion, an ox (later changed to a child or [[cherubim|cherub]]) and an eagle. Since there are four angels and each has four faces, there are a total of sixteen faces. Each Chayot angel also has four wings. Two of these wings spread across the length of the chariot and connected with the wings of the angel on the other side. This created a sort of 'box' of wings that formed the perimeter of the chariot. With the remaining two wings, each angel covered its own body. Below, but not attached to the feet of the "Chayot" angels are other angels that are shaped like wheels. These wheel angels, which are described as "a wheel inside of a wheel", are called "''[[Ophannim]]''" אופנים (lit. wheels, cycles or ways). These wheels are not directly under the chariot, but are nearby and along its perimeter. The angel with the face of the man is always on the east side and looks up at the "Likeness of a Man" that drives the chariot. The "Likeness of a Man" sits on a throne made of [[sapphire]].
According to the verses in Ezekiel and its attendant commentaries, the [[analogy]] of the Merkaba image consists of a chariot made of many angels being driven by the "Likeness of a Man." Four angels form the basic structure of the chariot. These angels are called the "Chayot" חיות (lit. living creatures). The bodies of the "Chayot" are like that of a human being, but each of them has four faces, corresponding to the four directions the chariot can go (north, east south and west). The faces are that of a man, a lion, an ox (later changed to a child or [[cherubim|cherub]]) and an eagle. Since there are four angels and each has four faces, there are a total of sixteen faces. Each Chayot angel also has four wings. Two of these wings spread across the length of the chariot and connected with the wings of the angel on the other side. This created a sort of 'box' of wings that formed the perimeter of the chariot. With the remaining two wings, each angel covered its own body. Below, but not attached to the feet of the "Chayot" angels are other angels that are shaped like wheels. These wheel angels, which are described as "a wheel inside of a wheel", are called "''Ophannim''" אופנים (lit. wheels, cycles or ways). These wheels are not directly under the chariot, but are nearby and along its perimeter. The angel with the face of the man is always on the east side and looks up at the "Likeness of a Man" that drives the chariot. The "Likeness of a Man" sits on a throne made of sapphire.
The Bible later makes mention of a third type of angel found in the Merkaba called "''[[Seraphim]]''" (lit. "burning") angels. These angels appear like flashes of fire continuously ascending and descending. These "Seraphim" angels powered the movement of the chariot. In the hierarchy of these angels, "Seraphim" are the highest, that is, closest to God, followed by the "Chayot", which are followed by the "[[Ophanim]]." The chariot is in a constant state of motion, and the energy behind this movement runs according to this hierarchy. The movement of the "Ofanim" is controlled by the "Chayot" while the movement of the "Chayot" is controlled by the "Seraphim". The movement of all the angels of the chariot are controlled by the "Likeness of a Man" on the Throne.
The Bible later makes mention of a third type of angel found in the Merkaba called "''[[Seraphim]]''" (lit. "burning") angels. These angels appear like flashes of fire continuously ascending and descending. These "Seraphim" angels powered the movement of the chariot. In the hierarchy of these angels, "Seraphim" are the highest, that is, closest to God, followed by the "Chayot", which are followed by the "Ophanim." The chariot is in a constant state of motion, and the energy behind this movement runs according to this hierarchy. The movement of the "Ofanim" is controlled by the "Chayot" while the movement of the "Chayot" is controlled by the "Seraphim". The movement of all the angels of the chariot are controlled by the "Likeness of a Man" on the Throne.
==In Jewish commentary==
==In Jewish commentary==
The earliest Rabbinic merkabah commentaries were [[exegesis|exegetical]] expositions of the prophetic visions of God in the heavens, and the divine retinue of angels, hosts, and heavenly creatures surrounding God. The earliest evidence suggests that merkabah homiletics did not give rise to ascent experiences - as one rabbinic sage states: "Many have expounded upon the merkabah without ever seeing it."[[Tosefta]]' [[Megillah]] 3[4]:28.
The earliest Rabbinic merkabah commentaries were expositions of the prophetic visions of God in the heavens, and the divine retinue of angels, hosts, and heavenly creatures surrounding God. The earliest evidence suggests that merkabah homiletics did not give rise to ascent experiences - as one rabbinic sage states: "Many have expounded upon the merkabah without ever seeing it."Tosefta' Megillah 3[4]:28.
One mention of the merkabah in the Talmud notes the importance of the passage: "A great issue—the account of the merkavah; a small issue—the discussions of Abaye and Rava [famous Talmudic sages]." (See Idel, Moshe. [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/ideas_belief/Kabbalah_and_Mysticism/Overview_The_Origins/Merkavah_Mysticism/Mysticism_RabMerk_Idel.htm|title="Merkavah mysticism in Rabbinic Literature."]), citing [[Babylonian Talmud]] [[Sukkah]] 28a. The sages [[Rabbi]] [[Yochanan Ben Zakkai]] (d. ca. 80 CE) and later, Rabbi [[Akiva]] (d. 135) were deeply involved in merkabah exegesis. Rabbi Akiva and his contemporary Rabbi [[Ishmael ben Elisha]] are most often the protagonists of later merkabah ascent literature.
One mention of the merkabah in the Talmud notes the importance of the passage: "A great issue—the account of the merkavah; a small issue—the discussions of Abaye and Rava [famous Talmudic sages]." (See Idel, Moshe. [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/ideas_belief/Kabbalah_and_Mysticism/Overview_The_Origins/Merkavah_Mysticism/Mysticism_RabMerk_Idel.htm]), citing Babylonian Talmud [[Sukkah]] 28a. The sages Rabbi Yochanan Ben Zakkai (d. ca. 80 CE) and later, Rabbi Akiva (d. 135) were deeply involved in merkabah exegesis. Rabbi Akiva and his contemporary Rabbi Ishmael ben Elisha are most often the protagonists of later merkabah ascent literature.
===Prohibition against study===
===Prohibition against study===
The [[Talmud]]ic interdictions concerning merkabah speculation are numerous and widely held. Discussions concerning the merkabah were limited to only the most worthy sages, and admonitory legends are preserved about the dangers of overzealous speculation concerning the merkabah.
The [[Talmud]]ic interdictions concerning merkabah speculation are numerous and widely held. Discussions concerning the merkabah were limited to only the most worthy sages, and admonitory legends are preserved about the dangers of overzealous speculation concerning the merkabah.
For example, the secret doctrines might not be discussed in public: "Seek not out the things that are too hard for thee, neither search the things that are above thy strength. But what is commanded thee, think thereupon with reverence; for it is not needful for thee to see with thine eyes the things that are in secret."[[Ecclesiasticus]] (iii. 21-22) It must be studied only by exemplary scholars: "Ma'aseh Bereshit must not be explained before two, nor Ma'aseh Merkabah before one, unless he be wise and understands it by himself,"<ref>Hag. ii. 1</ref> Further commentary notes that the chapter-headings of Ma'aseh Merkabah may be taught, as was done by R. Ḥiyya. According to Yer. Ḥag. ii. 1, the teacher read the headings of the chapters, after which, subject to the approval of the teacher, the pupil read to the end of the chapter,<ref> Ḥag. 13a</ref> although Rabbi [[Zera]] said that even the chapter-headings might be communicated only to a person who was head of a school and was cautious in temperament.
For example, the secret doctrines might not be discussed in public: "Seek not out the things that are too hard for thee, neither search the things that are above thy strength. But what is commanded thee, think thereupon with reverence; for it is not needful for thee to see with thine eyes the things that are in secret."[[Ecclesiasticus]] (iii. 21-22) It must be studied only by exemplary scholars: "Ma'aseh Bereshit must not be explained before two, nor Ma'aseh Merkabah before one, unless he be wise and understands it by himself,"(Hag. ii. 1) Further commentary notes that the chapter-headings of Ma'aseh Merkabah may be taught, as was done by R. Ḥiyya. According to Yer. Ḥag. ii. 1, the teacher read the headings of the chapters, after which, subject to the approval of the teacher, the pupil read to the end of the chapter,(Ḥag. 13a) although Rabbi Zera said that even the chapter-headings might be communicated only to a person who was head of a school and was cautious in temperament.
According to R. Ammi, the secret doctrine might be entrusted only to one who possessed the five qualities enumerated in [[Isaiah]] iii. 3 (being experienced in any of five different professions requiring good judgement), and a certain age is, of course, necessary. When R. Johanan wished to initiate R. Eliezer in the Ma'aseh Merkabah, the latter answered, "I am not yet old enough." A boy who recognized the meaning of (Ezek. i. 4) was consumed by fire (Ḥag. 13b), and the perils connected with the unauthorized discussion of these subjects are often described (Ḥag. ii. 1; Shab. 80b).
According to R. Ammi, the secret doctrine might be entrusted only to one who possessed the five qualities enumerated in [[Isaiah]] iii. 3 (being experienced in any of five different professions requiring good judgement), and a certain age is, of course, necessary. When R. Johanan wished to initiate R. Eliezer in the Ma'aseh Merkabah, the latter answered, "I am not yet old enough." A boy who recognized the meaning of (Ezek. i. 4) was consumed by fire (Ḥag. 13b), and the perils connected with the unauthorized discussion of these subjects are often described (Ḥag. ii. 1; Shab. 80b).
===Further analysis===
===Further analysis===
Beyond the rabbinic community, Jewish [[apocalypse|apocalyptists]] also engaged in visionary exegeses concerning the divine realm and the divine creatures which are remarkably similar to the rabbinic material. A small number of texts unearthed at [[Qumran]] indicate that the [[Dead Sea]] community also engaged in merkabah exegesis. Recently uncovered Jewish mystical texts also evidence a deep affinity with the rabbinic merkabah homilies.
Beyond the rabbinic community, Jewish apocalyptists also engaged in visionary exegeses concerning the divine realm and the divine creatures which are remarkably similar to the rabbinic material. A small number of texts unearthed at [[Qumran]] indicate that the [[Dead Sea]] community also engaged in merkabah exegesis. Recently uncovered Jewish mystical texts also evidence a deep affinity with the rabbinic merkabah homilies.
The merkabah homilies eventually consisted of detailed descriptions of multiple layered heavens (usually seven in number), often guarded over by angels, and encircled by flames and lightning. The highest heaven contains seven palaces (''hekhalot''), and in the innermost palace resides a supreme divine image (God's Glory or an angelic image) seated on a throne, surrounded by awesome hosts who sing God's praise.
The merkabah homilies eventually consisted of detailed descriptions of multiple layered heavens (usually seven in number), often guarded over by angels, and encircled by flames and lightning. The highest heaven contains seven palaces (''hekhalot''), and in the innermost palace resides a supreme divine image (God's Glory or an angelic image) seated on a throne, surrounded by awesome hosts who sing God's praise.
When these images were combined with an actual mystical experiential motif of individual ascent (paradoxically called "descent" in most texts) and union is not precisely known. By inference, contemporary historians of Jewish mysticism usually date this development to the third century CE. Again, there is a significant dispute amongst historians over whether these ascent and unitive themes were the result of some "foreign," usually [[Gnostic]], influence, or a natural progression of religious dynamics within [[rabbinic Judaism]]. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
When these images were combined with an actual mystical experiential motif of individual ascent (paradoxically called "descent" in most texts) and union is not precisely known. By inference, contemporary historians of Jewish mysticism usually date this development to the third century CE. Again, there is a significant dispute amongst historians over whether these ascent and unitive themes were the result of some "foreign," usually [[Gnostic]], influence, or a natural progression of religious dynamics within rabbinic Judaism.
===Maimonides===
===Maimonides===
[[Maimonides]]' 12th Century work, ''[[Guide for the Perplexed]]'' is in part intended as an explanation of the passages Ma'aseh Bereshit and Ma'aseh Merkabah. In the third volume, Maimonides commences the exposition of the mystical passage of the [[Kabbalah#Mystic Doctrines in Talmudic Times|mystic doctrines]] found in the merkavah passages, while justifying this "crossing of the line" from hints to direct instruction. Maimonides explains basic mystical concepts via the Biblical terms referring to Spheres, elements and Intelligences. In these chapters, however, there is still very little in terms of direct explanation.
[[Maimonides]]' 12th Century work, ''[[Guide for the Perplexed]]'' is in part intended as an explanation of the passages Ma'aseh Bereshit and Ma'aseh Merkabah. In the third volume, Maimonides commences the exposition of the mystical passage of the mystic doctrines found in the merkavah passages, while justifying this "crossing of the line" from hints to direct instruction. Maimonides explains basic mystical concepts via the Biblical terms referring to Spheres, elements and Intelligences. In these chapters, however, there is still very little in terms of direct explanation.
===A Hasidic explanation===
===A Hasidic explanation===
Hasidic philosophy explains that the Merkaba is a multi-layered [[analogy]] that offers insight into the [[nature]] of man, the [[ecology|ecosystem]], the world, and teaches us how to become better people.
The four Chayot angels represent the basic archetypes that God used to create the current nature of the world. Ofannim, which means "ways", are the ways these archetypes combine to create actual entities that exist in the world. For instance, in the basic elements of the world, the lion represents fire, the ox/earth, the eagle/air, and the man/water. However, in practice, everything in the world is some combination of all four, and the particular combination of each element that exist in each thing are its particular Ofannim or ways. In another example, the four Chayot represent spring, summer, winter and fall. These four types of weather are the archetypal forms. The Ofannim would be the combination of weather that exists on a particular day, which may be a winter-like day within the summer or a summer like day within the winter or whatever.
The four Chayot angels represent the basic archetypes that God used to create the current nature of the world. Ofannim, which means "ways", are the ways these archetypes combine to create actual entities that exist in the world. For instance, in the basic elements of the world, the lion represents fire, the ox/earth, the eagle/air, and the man/water. However, in practice, everything in the world is some combination of all four, and the particular combination of each element that exist in each thing are its particular Ofannim or ways. In another example, the four Chayot represent spring, summer, winter and fall. These four types of weather are the archetypal forms. The Ofannim would be the combination of weather that exists on a particular day, which may be a winter-like day within the summer or a summer like day within the winter or whatever.
===Ma'asei Merkavah===
===Ma'asei Merkavah===
Ma’asei Merkavah, the first distinctly mystical movement in Jewish history, appeared in the late Greco-Roman period, after the end of the [[Second Temple]] period following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E. It is a form of pre-[[Kabbalah]] [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[mysticism]], that teaches both of the possibility of making a sublime journey to [[God]] and of the ability of man to draw down divine powers to earth; it seems to be an esoteric movement that grew out of the priestly mysticism already evident in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] and some apocalyptic writings.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} ''Hekhalot'' writings are the literary artifacts of the Maasei Merkavah.
Ma’asei Merkavah, the first distinctly mystical movement in Jewish history, appeared in the late Greco-Roman period, after the end of the [[Second Temple]] period following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E. It is a form of pre-Kabbalah Jewish mysticism, that teaches both of the possibility of making a sublime journey to [[God]] and of the ability of man to draw down divine powers to earth; it seems to be an esoteric [[movement]] that grew out of the priestly mysticism already evident in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] and some apocalyptic writings. ''Hekhalot'' writings are the literary artifacts of the Maasei Merkavah.
Merkava/Hekhalot mysticism began after the end of the [[Second Temple]] period following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., when the physical cult ceased to function. The idea of making a journey to the heavenly "hekhal" seems to be a kind of spiritualization of the pilgrimages to the earthly "hekhal" that were now no longer possible.
Merkava/Hekhalot mysticism began after the end of the [[Second Temple]] period following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., when the physical cult ceased to function. The idea of making a journey to the heavenly "hekhal" seems to be a kind of spiritualization of the pilgrimages to the earthly "hekhal" that were now no longer possible.
In [[medieval]] [[Judaism]], the beginning of the book of Ezekiel was regarded as the most [[Jewish mysticism|mystical]] passage in the [[Hebrew Bible]], and its study was discouraged, except by mature individuals with an extensive grounding in the study of traditional Jewish texts.
In medieval Judaism, the beginning of the book of Ezekiel was regarded as the most mystical passage in the [[Hebrew Bible]], and its study was discouraged, except by mature individuals with an extensive grounding in the study of traditional Jewish texts.
====Hekhalot====
====Hekhalot====
'''Hekhalot''' (“Palaces/Temples”) writings are the literary artifacts of the ''Maasei Merkavah''. The main interests of all Hekhalot writings are accounts of mystical ascents into heaven, divine visions, and the summoning and control of angels, usually for the purpose of gaining insight into [[Torah]]. The ''locus classicus'' for these practices is the biblical accounts of the Chariot vision of [[Ezekiel]] (Chap. 1) and the Temple vision of [[Isaiah]] (Chap. 6). It is from these, and from the many extra-canonical apocalyptic writings of heavenly visitations, that Hekhalot literature emerges. Still, it is distinctive from both Qumran literature and Apocalyptic writings for several reasons, chief among them being that Hekhalot literature is not at all interested in eschatology, largely ignores the unique status of the priesthood, has little interest in fallen angels or demonology, and it "democratizes" the possibility of divine ascent. It may represent a "rabbinization" of these earlier priestly ideologies.
'''Hekhalot''' (“Palaces/Temples”) writings are the literary artifacts of the ''Maasei Merkavah''. The main interests of all Hekhalot writings are accounts of mystical ascents into heaven, divine visions, and the summoning and control of angels, usually for the purpose of gaining insight into [[Torah]]. The ''locus classicus'' for these practices is the biblical accounts of the Chariot vision of [[Ezekiel]] (Chap. 1) and the Temple vision of [[Isaiah]] (Chap. 6). It is from these, and from the many extra-canonical apocalyptic writings of heavenly visitations, that Hekhalot literature emerges. Still, it is distinctive from both Qumran literature and Apocalyptic writings for several reasons, chief among them being that Hekhalot literature is not at all interested in eschatology, largely ignores the unique status of the priesthood, has little interest in fallen angels or demonology, and it "democratizes" the possibility of divine ascent. It may represent a "rabbinization" of these earlier priestly ideologies.
The title, “Hekhalot” (palaces), derives from the divine abodes seen by the practitioner following a long period of ritual purification, self-mortification, and ecstatic [[prayer]] and [[meditation]]. In their visions, these mystics would enter into the celestial realms and journey through the seven stages of mystical ascent: the Seven Heavens and seven throne rooms.
The title, “Hekhalot” (palaces), derives from the divine abodes seen by the practitioner following a long period of ritual purification, self-mortification, and ecstatic prayer and [[meditation]]. In their visions, these mystics would enter into the celestial realms and journey through the seven stages of mystical ascent: the Seven Heavens and seven throne rooms.
Such a journey is fraught with great danger, and the adept must not only have made elaborate purification preparation, but must also know the proper incantations, seals and angelic names needed to get past the fierce angelic guards, as well as know how to navigate the various forces at work inside and outside the palaces.
Such a journey is fraught with great danger, and the adept must not only have made elaborate purification preparation, but must also know the proper incantations, seals and angelic names needed to get past the fierce angelic guards, as well as know how to navigate the various forces at work inside and outside the palaces.
A fifth work provides a detailed description of the Creator as seen by the "descenders" at the climax of their ascent. This work, preserved in various forms, is called ''Shi'ur Qomah'' ("Measurement of the Body"), and is rooted in a mystical exegesis of the Song of Songs, a book reputedly venerated by Rabbi Akiva. The literal message of the work was repulsive to those who maintained God's incorporeality; [[Maimonides]] (d. 1204) wrote that the book should be erased and all mention of its existence deleted.
A fifth work provides a detailed description of the Creator as seen by the "descenders" at the climax of their ascent. This work, preserved in various forms, is called ''Shi'ur Qomah'' ("Measurement of the Body"), and is rooted in a mystical exegesis of the Song of Songs, a book reputedly venerated by Rabbi Akiva. The literal message of the work was repulsive to those who maintained God's incorporeality; [[Maimonides]] (d. 1204) wrote that the book should be erased and all mention of its existence deleted.
While throughout the era of merkabah mysticism the problem of creation was not of paramount importance, the treatise ''[[Sefer Yetzirah]]'' ("Book of Creation") represents an attempt at cosmogony from within a merkabah milieu. This text was probably composed during the seventh century CE, and evidence influence of Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, and Stoicism. It features a linguistic theory of creation in which God creates the universe by combining the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, along with emanations represented by the ten numerals, or sefirot.
While throughout the era of merkabah mysticism the problem of creation was not of paramount importance, the treatise ''Sefer Yetzirah'' ("Book of Creation") represents an attempt at cosmogony from within a merkabah milieu. This text was probably composed during the seventh century CE, and evidence influence of Neoplatonism, Pythagoreanism, and Stoicism. It features a linguistic theory of creation in which God creates the universe by combining the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, along with emanations represented by the ten numerals, or sefirot.
====Heikhalot literature and "Four Entered Pardes"====
====Heikhalot literature and "Four Entered Pardes"====
Idel, Scholem, Dan, and others have raised the natural question concerning the relationship between the "chambers" portion of the [[Heichalot]] literature and the Bavli's treatment of "The Work of the Chariot" in the presentation and analysis of such in the Gemara to tractate Khaggigah of the Mishna. This portion of the Babylonian Talmud, which includes the famous "four entered pardes" material, runs from 12b-iv (wherein the Gemara's treatment of the "Work of Creation" flows into and becomes its treatment of "The Work of the Chariot") to and into 16a-i. [All references are to the Art Scroll pagination.]
Idel, Scholem, Dan, and others have raised the natural question concerning the relationship between the "chambers" portion of the Heichalot literature and the Bavli's treatment of "The Work of the Chariot" in the presentation and analysis of such in the Gemara to tractate Khaggigah of the Mishna. This portion of the Babylonian Talmud, which includes the famous "four entered pardes" material, runs from 12b-iv (wherein the Gemara's treatment of the "Work of Creation" flows into and becomes its treatment of "The Work of the Chariot") to and into 16a-i. [All references are to the Art Scroll pagination.]
By making use of the Rabinically paradigmatic figures of Rabbi Aqiba and Rabbi Ishmael in their writings, the generators of the Heikhalot literature, quite arguably, seem to be attempting to show some sort of connection between their writings and the Chariot/Throne study and practice of the Rabbinic Movement in the decades immediately following upon the destruction of the Temple. However, in both the Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud the major players in this Chariot/Throne endeavor are, clearly, Rabbi Aqiba and Elisha ben Abuyah who is referred to as "Akher." Neither Talmud presents Rabbi Ishmael as a player in Merkabah study and practice.
By making use of the Rabinically paradigmatic figures of Rabbi Aqiba and Rabbi Ishmael in their writings, the generators of the Heikhalot literature, quite arguably, seem to be attempting to show some sort of connection between their writings and the Chariot/Throne study and practice of the Rabbinic Movement in the decades immediately following upon the destruction of the Temple. However, in both the Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud the major players in this Chariot/Throne endeavor are, clearly, Rabbi Aqiba and Elisha ben Abuyah who is referred to as "Akher." Neither Talmud presents Rabbi Ishmael as a player in Merkabah study and practice.
In the "four-entered-pardes" section of this portion of the Bavli Gemara on tractate Khaggigah, it is the figure of Aqiba who seems to be lionized. For of the four he is the only one presented who ascended and descended "whole." The other three were broken, one way or another: Ben Azzai dies soon after; Ben Zoma is presented as going insane; and worst of all, "Akher" apostasizes. This putative lionization of Rabbi Aqiba occurs at 15b-vi-16a-i of our Gemara section. However, in the author's other publication of 2006 [pages 366-369] something remarkable is revealed about the "prooftexting" offered in support of this putative lionization of Rabbi Aqiba. For a careful analysis of both the prooftexts offered and in whose name they are offered shows that these most curious "prooftexts" are in fact subtle satires of the self-aggrandizing feature of Aqiba's character make-up.
In the "four-entered-pardes" section of this portion of the Bavli Gemara on tractate Khaggigah, it is the figure of Aqiba who seems to be lionized. For of the four he is the only one presented who ascended and descended "whole." The other three were broken, one way or another: Ben Azzai dies soon after; Ben Zoma is presented as going insane; and worst of all, "Akher" apostasizes. This putative lionization of Rabbi Aqiba occurs at 15b-vi-16a-i of our Gemara section. However, in the author's other publication of 2006 [pages 366-369] something remarkable is revealed about the "prooftexting" offered in support of this putative lionization of Rabbi Aqiba. For a careful analysis of both the prooftexts offered and in whose name they are offered shows that these most curious "prooftexts" are in fact subtle satires of the self-aggrandizing feature of Aqiba's character make-up.
==See also==
==See also==
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_eye Third eye]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_eye Third eye]
#Ḥag. 13a
#Ḥag. 13a
#Timo Eskola. Messiah and the Throne: Jewish Merkabah Mysticism and Early Exaltation Discourse Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001.
#Timo Eskola. Messiah and the Throne: Jewish Merkabah Mysticism and Early Exaltation Discourse Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001.
==Further reading==
==Further reading==