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The term ''civilization'' is often used as a synonym for ''culture'' in both popular and academic circles. Every human being participates in a culture, defined as "the arts, customs, habits... beliefs, values, behavior and material habits that constitute a people's way of life". Civilizations can be distinguished from other cultures by their high level of social complexity and organization, and by their diverse economic and cultural activities.

The term ''civilization'' is often used as a synonym for ''culture'' in both popular and academic circles. Every human being participates in a culture, defined as "the arts, customs, habits... beliefs, values, behavior and material habits that constitute a people's way of life". Civilizations can be distinguished from other cultures by their high level of social complexity and organization, and by their diverse economic and cultural activities.

The term has been defined and understood in a number of ways different from the standard definition. Sometimes it is used synonymously with the broader term ''culture''. ''Civilization'' can also refer to society as a whole. To nineteenth-century [[England|English]] [[anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], for example, civilization was "the total social heredity of mankind;"<ref>"Civilization and Cultural Evolution" (1974), ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]'' 15th ed. Vol. 4, 657.</ref> in other words, civilization was the totality of human knowledge and culture as represented by the most "advanced" society at a given time.<ref>"Civilization and Cultural Evolution," ''Britannica'' Vol. 4, 657.</ref> ''Civilization'' can be used in a [[normative]] sense as well: if complex and urban cultures are assumed to be superior to other "savage" or "[[barbarian]]" cultures, then "civilization" is used as a synonym for "superiority of certain groups." In a similar sense, civilization can mean "refinement of thought, manners, or taste".<ref>"Civilization" (2004), ''[[Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary]]'' Eleventh Edition, Merriam-Webster, Inc., 226.</ref>

The term has been defined and understood in a number of ways different from the standard definition. Sometimes it is used synonymously with the broader term ''culture''. ''Civilization'' can also refer to society as a whole. To nineteenth-century [[England|English]] [[anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], for example, civilization was "the total social heredity of mankind;" in other words, civilization was the totality of human knowledge and culture as represented by the most "advanced" society at a given time. ''Civilization'' can be used in a [[normative]] sense as well: if complex and urban cultures are assumed to be superior to other "savage" or "[[barbarian]]" cultures, then "civilization" is used as a synonym for "superiority of certain groups." In a similar sense, civilization can mean "refinement of thought, manners, or taste".

However, in its most widely used definition, civilization is a descriptive term for a relatively complex agricultural and urban culture.

However, in its most widely used definition, civilization is a descriptive term for a relatively complex agricultural and urban culture.

The word ''Civilization'' comes from the [[Latin]] word ''civilis'', the [[adjective]] form of ''civis'', meaning a "[[citizen]]" or "townsman" governed by the law of his city.

The word ''Civilization'' comes from the [[Latin]] word ''civilis'', the [[adjective]] form of ''civis'', meaning a "[[citizen]]" or "townsman" governed by the law of his city.

In the 6th century, the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[Emperor Justinian]] oversaw the consolidation of Roman [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]. The resulting collection is called the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]]. In the 11th century, professors at the [[Bologna|University of Bologna]], [[Western Europe]]'s first [[university]], rediscovered Corpus Juris Civilis, and its influence began to be felt across Western Europe. In 1388, the word ''civil'' appeared in English meaning "of or related to citizens".<ref>"Civil", ''Merriam-Webster'', 226.</ref> In 1704, ''civilization'' began to mean "a law which makes a criminal process into a civil case." ''Civilization'' was not used in its modern sense to mean "the opposite of [[barbarian|barbarism]]" &mdash; as contrasted to ''civility'', meaning politeness or civil virtue &mdash; until the 18th century.

In the 6th century, the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[Emperor Justinian]] oversaw the consolidation of Roman [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]. The resulting collection is called the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]]. In the 11th century, professors at the [[Bologna|University of Bologna]], [[Western Europe]]'s first [[university]], rediscovered Corpus Juris Civilis, and its influence began to be felt across Western Europe. In 1388, the word ''civil'' appeared in English meaning "of or related to citizens". In 1704, ''civilization'' began to mean "a law which makes a criminal process into a civil case." ''Civilization'' was not used in its modern sense to mean "the opposite of [[barbarian|barbarism]]"; as contrasted to ''civility'', meaning politeness or civil virtue &mdash; until the 18th century.

According to [[Emile Benveniste]] (1954<ref name=Benveniste> [[Émile Benveniste]], "''Civilization. Contribution à l'histoire du mot''" (Civilization. Contribution to the history of the word), 1954, published in ''Problèmes de linguistique générale'', [[Editions Gallimard]], 1966, pp.336-345 (translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek as ''Problems in general linguistics'', 2 vols., 1971) </ref>), the first occurrence in English of ''civilization'' in its modern sense may be found in [[Adam Ferguson]]'s ''An Essay on the History of Civil Society'' (Edinburgh, 1767 - p.2):

According to [[Emile Benveniste]] (1954 name=Benveniste> [[Émile Benveniste]], "''Civilization. Contribution à l'histoire du mot''" (Civilization. Contribution to the history of the word), 1954, published in ''Problèmes de linguistique générale'', [[Editions Gallimard]], 1966, pp.336-345 (translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek as ''Problems in general linguistics'', 2 vols., 1971), the first occurrence in English of ''civilization'' in its modern sense may be found in [[Adam Ferguson]]'s ''An Essay on the History of Civil Society'' (Edinburgh, 1767 - p.2):

:"Not only the individual advances from infancy to manhood, but the species itself from rudeness to civilization.

:"Not only the individual advances from infancy to manhood, but the species itself from rudeness to civilization.

{{cquote|On Monday, March 23 (1772), I found him busy, preparing a fourth edition of his folio Dictionary... He would not admit ''civilization'', but only ''civility''. With great deference to him I thought ''civilization'', from ''to civilize'', better in the sense opposed to ''barbarity'' than ''civility'', as it is better to have a distinct word for each sense, than one word with two senses, which ''civility'' is, in his way of using it.}}

{{cquote|On Monday, March 23 (1772), I found him busy, preparing a fourth edition of his folio Dictionary... He would not admit ''civilization'', but only ''civility''. With great deference to him I thought ''civilization'', from ''to civilize'', better in the sense opposed to ''barbarity'' than ''civility'', as it is better to have a distinct word for each sense, than one word with two senses, which ''civility'' is, in his way of using it.}}

Benveniste demonstrated that previous occurrences could be found, which explained the quick adoption of Johnson's definition. In 1775 the dictionary of Ast defined ''civilization'' as "the state of being civilized; the act of civilizing"<ref name=Benveniste/>, and the term was frequently used by [[Adam Smith]] in ''[[An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776)<ref name=Benveniste/>. Beside Smith and Ferguson, John Millar also used it in 1771 in his ''Observations concerning the distinction of ranks in society''<ref name=Benveniste/>.

Benveniste demonstrated that previous occurrences could be found, which explained the quick adoption of Johnson's definition. In 1775 the dictionary of Ast defined ''civilization'' as "the state of being civilized; the act of civilizing", and the term was frequently used by [[Adam Smith]] in ''[[An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776). Beside Smith and Ferguson, John Millar also used it in 1771 in his ''Observations concerning the distinction of ranks in society''

As the first occurrence of ''civilization'' in French was found by Benveniste in the [[Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau|Marquis de Mirabeau's]] ''L'Ami des hommes ou traité de la population'' (written in 1756 but published in 1757), Benveniste's query was to know if the English word derived from the French, or if both evolved independently &mdash; a question which needed more researches. According to him, the word ''civilization'' may in fact have been used by Ferguson as soon as 1759<ref name=Benveniste/>.

As the first occurrence of ''civilization'' in French was found by Benveniste in the [[Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau|Marquis de Mirabeau's]] ''L'Ami des hommes ou traité de la population'' (written in 1756 but published in 1757), Benveniste's query was to know if the English word derived from the French, or if both evolved independently; a question which needed more researches. According to him, the word ''civilization'' may in fact have been used by Ferguson as soon as 1759.

Furthermore, Benveniste notes that, contrasted to ''civility'', a static term, ''civilization'' conveys a sense of dynamism. He thus writes that...

Furthermore, Benveniste notes that, contrasted to ''civility'', a static term, ''civilization'' conveys a sense of dynamism. He thus writes that...

{{cquote|It was not only a historical view of society; it was also an optimist and resolutely non theological interpretation of its evolution which asserted itself, sometimes at the insu of those who proclaimed it, and even if some of them, and first of all Mirabeau, still counted religion as the first factor of 'civilization''.<ref>Benveniste (French): ''Ce n'était pas seulement une vue historique de la société; c'était aussi une interprétation optimiste et résolument non théologique de son évolution qui s'affirmait, parfois à l'insu de ceux qui la proclamaient, et même si certains, et d'abord Mirabeau, comptaient encore la religion comme le premier facteur de la "civilization".''</ref><ref name=Benveniste/>}}

{{cquote|It was not only a historical view of society; it was also an optimist and resolutely non theological interpretation of its evolution which asserted itself, sometimes at the insu of those who proclaimed it, and even if some of them, and first of all Mirabeau, still counted religion as the first factor of 'civilization''.

Another source of the word may relate to chivalry: a set of rules of engagement, originally for knights in warfare, but later expanded to cover conduct of knighthood or nobility. The English 'chivalry' comes from the French 'chevalier': a horseman. England and France would therefore have given rise to the terms at similar times.

Another source of the word may relate to chivalry: a set of rules of engagement, originally for knights in warfare, but later expanded to cover conduct of knighthood or nobility. The English 'chivalry' comes from the French 'chevalier': a horseman. England and France would therefore have given rise to the terms at similar times.

[[Image:Sumerian 26th c Adab.jpg|thumb|26th century BC [[Sumerian]] [[cuneiform script]] in [[Sumerian language]], listing gifts to the high priestess of [[Adab]] on the occasion of her election. One of the earliest examples of human [[writing]].]]

[[Image:Sumerian 26th c Adab.jpg|thumb|26th century BC [[Sumerian]] [[cuneiform script]] in [[Sumerian language]], listing gifts to the high priestess of [[Adab]] on the occasion of her election. One of the earliest examples of human [[writing]].]]

Social scientists such as [[V. Gordon Childe]] have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society.<ref>Gordon Childe, V., ''What Happened in History'' (Penguin, 1942) and ''Man Makes Himself'' (Harmondsworth, 1951)</ref> Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, [[literacy]], and other cultural traits.

Social scientists such as [[V. Gordon Childe]] have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, [[literacy]], and other cultural traits.

All human civilizations have depended on [[agriculture]] for subsistence. Growing food on farms results in a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as [[irrigation]] and [[crop rotation]]. [[Grain]] surpluses have been especially important because they can be [[food storage|stored]] for a long time. A surplus of food permits some people to do things besides produce food for a living: early civilizations included [[artisan]]s, [[priest]]s and priestesses, and other people with specialized careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labour and a more diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations.

All human civilizations have depended on [[agriculture]] for subsistence. Growing food on farms results in a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as [[irrigation]] and [[crop rotation]]. [[Grain]] surpluses have been especially important because they can be [[food storage|stored]] for a long time. A surplus of food permits some people to do things besides produce food for a living: early civilizations included [[artisan]]s, [[priest]]s and priestesses, and other people with specialized careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labour and a more diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations.

Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word ''civilization'' is sometimes defined as "a word that simply means 'living in cities'".<ref>[[Tom Standage]] (2005), ''A History of the World in 6 Glasses'', Walker & Company, 25.</ref> Non-farmers gather in cities to work and to trade.

Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word ''civilization'' is sometimes defined as "a word that simply means 'living in cities'". Non-farmers gather in cities to work and to trade.

Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the [[state]]. State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes. The [[ruling class]], normally concentrated in the cities, has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through the actions of a [[government]] or [[bureaucracy]]. [[Morton Fried]], a [[conflict theory|conflict theorist]], and [[Elman Service]], an integration theorist, have classified human cultures based on political systems and [[social inequality]]. This system of classification contains four categories:

Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the [[state]]. State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes. The [[ruling class]], normally concentrated in the cities, has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through the actions of a [[government]] or [[bureaucracy]]. [[Morton Fried]], a [[conflict theory|conflict theorist]], and [[Elman Service]], an integration theorist, have classified human cultures based on political systems and [[social inequality]]. This system of classification contains four categories:

Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns of ownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in one place allows people to accumulate more [[personal possessions]] than nomadic people. Some people also acquire [[landed property]], or private ownership of the land. Because many people in civilizations do not grow their own food, they must [[trade]] their goods and services for food in a [[market]] system. Early civilizations developed [[money]] as a universal medium of exchange for these increasingly complex transactions.

Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns of ownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in one place allows people to accumulate more [[personal possessions]] than nomadic people. Some people also acquire [[landed property]], or private ownership of the land. Because many people in civilizations do not grow their own food, they must [[trade]] their goods and services for food in a [[market]] system. Early civilizations developed [[money]] as a universal medium of exchange for these increasingly complex transactions.

[[Writing]], developed first by people in [[Sumer]], is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany the rise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state."<ref>Pauketat, 169.</ref> Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing to keep accurate records. Aided by their division of labor and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diverse cultural traits. These include organized [[religion]], development in the [[arts]], and countless new advances in [[science]] and [[technology]].

[[Writing]], developed first by people in [[Sumer]], is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany the rise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state." Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing to keep accurate records. Aided by their division of labor and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diverse cultural traits. These include organized [[religion]], development in the [[arts]], and countless new advances in [[science]] and [[technology]].

==Cultural identity==

==Cultural identity==

Whereas the etiology of civilization is Latin or Roman, defined above as the application of justice by "civil" means, one may also examine and reflect upon Jewish or Hebrew civilization. A Hebrew "civilization" is defined not as an expression or extension of the subjective trappings of culture and society, but rather as a human society and/or culture being an expression of objective moral and ethical moorings as they are known, understood and applied in accordance with the Mosaic Covenant.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} A "human" civilization, in Hebrew terms for instance, may contrast sharply with conventional notions about "civilization." A "human" civilization, therein, would be an expression and extension of the two most basic pillars of human "civilization." These two pillars are, honest standardized weights and measures and a moral and healthy constitution. Everything else, whether technology, science, art, music, etc., is by this definition considered as ''commentary''. Indeed, to the degree the surface terrain of a human society, i.e., culture is "civilized," is to the degree the internal terrain (characteristics, personality or substance) of the people and leadership must also have been inoculated by, and inculcated with a moral foundation. The Biblically described Sodom, for instance, while being a society comprised of people with a culture, would by Jewish or Biblical standards of "civility" have been uncivilized. And while the Roman sentiment is largely focused upon how justice must "appear" to be done in a "civil" manner, the Hebrew or Biblical approach to justice, in principle, is never limited to subjective pretenses or appearance, but more importantly, justice must be predicated upon objective principles. Ultimately, there is no true or lasting "civility" for any man in the absence of moral composure.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}

Whereas the etiology of civilization is Latin or Roman, defined above as the application of justice by "civil" means, one may also examine and reflect upon Jewish or Hebrew civilization. A Hebrew "civilization" is defined not as an expression or extension of the subjective trappings of culture and society, but rather as a human society and/or culture being an expression of objective moral and ethical moorings as they are known, understood and applied in accordance with the Mosaic Covenant.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} A "human" civilization, in Hebrew terms for instance, may contrast sharply with conventional notions about "civilization." A "human" civilization, therein, would be an expression and extension of the two most basic pillars of human "civilization." These two pillars are, honest standardized weights and measures and a moral and healthy constitution. Everything else, whether technology, science, art, music, etc., is by this definition considered as ''commentary''. Indeed, to the degree the surface terrain of a human society, i.e., culture is "civilized," is to the degree the internal terrain (characteristics, personality or substance) of the people and leadership must also have been inoculated by, and inculcated with a moral foundation. The Biblically described Sodom, for instance, while being a society comprised of people with a culture, would by Jewish or Biblical standards of "civility" have been uncivilized. And while the Roman sentiment is largely focused upon how justice must "appear" to be done in a "civil" manner, the Hebrew or Biblical approach to justice, in principle, is never limited to subjective pretenses or appearance, but more importantly, justice must be predicated upon objective principles. Ultimately, there is no true or lasting "civility" for any man in the absence of moral composure.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}

Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as single units. One example is early twentieth-century philosopher [[Oswald Spengler]],<ref>Spengler, Oswald, ''Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History'' (1919)</ref> even though he uses the German word "Kultur," "culture," for what we here call a "civilization." He said that a civilization's coherence is based around a single primary cultural symbol. Civilizations experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a new civilization with a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol.

Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as single units. One example is early twentieth-century philosopher [[Oswald Spengler]], even though he uses the German word "Kultur," "culture," for what we here call a "civilization." He said that a civilization's coherence is based around a single primary cultural symbol. Civilizations experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a new civilization with a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol.

This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume ''[[A Study of History]],'' which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations." Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of moral or religious decline, rather than economic or environmental causes.

This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume ''[[A Study of History]],'' which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations." Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of moral or religious decline, rather than economic or environmental causes.

For example, urbanist [[Jane Jacobs]] defines cities as the economic engines that work to create large networks of people. The main process that creates these city networks, she says, is "import replacement". Import replacement is the process by which peripheral cities begin to replace goods and services that were formerly imported from more advanced cities. Successful import replacement creates economic growth in these peripheral cities, and allows these cities to then export their goods to less developed cities in their own hinterlands, creating new economic networks. So Jacobs explores economic development across wide networks instead of treating each society as an isolated cultural sphere.

For example, urbanist [[Jane Jacobs]] defines cities as the economic engines that work to create large networks of people. The main process that creates these city networks, she says, is "import replacement". Import replacement is the process by which peripheral cities begin to replace goods and services that were formerly imported from more advanced cities. Successful import replacement creates economic growth in these peripheral cities, and allows these cities to then export their goods to less developed cities in their own hinterlands, creating new economic networks. So Jacobs explores economic development across wide networks instead of treating each society as an isolated cultural sphere.

Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the [[Silk Road]] through [[Central Asia]] and [[Indian Ocean]] sea routes linking the [[Roman Empire]], [[Persian Empire]], [[India]], and [[China]], were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations. The first evidence of such long distance trade is in the ancient world. During the Uruk phase Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan.<ref>Algaze, Guillermo, ''The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization''" (Second Edition, 2004) (ISBN 978-0-226-01382-4)</ref> Resin found later in the [http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/tombs/index.html Royal Tombs of Ur] it is suggested was traded northwards from Mozambique.

Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the [[Silk Road]] through [[Central Asia]] and [[Indian Ocean]] sea routes linking the [[Roman Empire]], [[Persian Empire]], [[India]], and [[China]], were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations. The first evidence of such long distance trade is in the ancient world. During the Uruk phase Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan. Royal Tombs of [Ur] it is suggested was traded northwards from Mozambique.

Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "[[world-system theory|world system]]", a process known as [[globalization]]. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration &ndash; cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic &ndash; is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. David Wilkinson has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of the [[Mesopotamia]]n and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization" around 1500 BC.<ref>Wilkinson, David, ''[http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol10/number3/pdf/jwsr-v10n3-wilkinson.pdf The Power Configuration Sequence of the Central World System, 1500-700 BC]'' (2001) </ref> Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or relatively homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations" might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the [[Crusades]] as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism.

Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "[[world-system theory|world system]]", a process known as [[globalization]]. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration &ndash; cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic &ndash; is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. David Wilkinson has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of the [[Mesopotamia]]n and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization" around 1500 BC. Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or relatively homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations" might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the [[Crusades]] as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism.

==Future==

==Future==

Political scientist [[Samuel Huntington]]<ref>Huntington, Samuel P., ''The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order'', (Simon & Schuster, 1996)</ref> has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a [[clash of civilizations]]. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between [[nation-state]]s and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries.

Political scientist [[Samuel Huntington has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a [[clash of civilizations]]. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between [[nation-state]]s and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries.

Currently, world civilization is in a stage that has created what may be characterized as an [[industrial society]], superseding the [[agrarian society]] that preceded it. Some futurists believe that civilization is undergoing another transformation, and that world society will become a so-called [[informational society]].

Currently, world civilization is in a stage that has created what may be characterized as an [[industrial society]], superseding the [[agrarian society]] that preceded it. Some futurists believe that civilization is undergoing another transformation, and that world society will become a so-called [[informational society]].

Some environmental scientists see the world entering a [[Planetary Phase of Civilization]], characterized by a shift away from independent, disconnected nation-states to a world of increased global connectivity with worldwide institutions, environmental challenges, economic systems, and consciousness.<ref>[http://www.orionsociety.org/pages/oo/sidebars/America/Rockefeller.html Orion > Thoughts on America<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.kosmosjournal.org/kjo/backissue/s2006/laszlo-1.shtml Kosmos Journal Paths to Planetary Civilization<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In an attempt to better understand what a Planetary Phase of Civilization might look like in the current context of declining natural resources and increasing consumption, the [[Global scenario group]] used [[scenario analysis]] to arrive at three archetypal futures: Barbarization, in which increasing conflicts result in either a fortress world or complete societal breakdown; Conventional Worlds, in which market forces or [[Policy reform]] slowly precipitate more sustainable practices; and a Great Transition, in which either the sum of fragmented [[Eco-Communalism]] movements add up to a sustainable world or globally coordinated efforts and initiatives result in a new sustainability paradigm.<ref>http://www.gtinitiative.org/documents/Great_Transitions.pdf</ref>

Some environmental scientists see the world entering a [[Planetary Phase of Civilization]], characterized by a shift away from independent, disconnected nation-states to a world of increased global connectivity with worldwide institutions, environmental challenges, economic systems, and consciousness.[http://www.orionsociety.org/pages/oo/sidebars/America/Rockefeller.html Orion] Thoughts on America[http://www.kosmosjournal.org/kjo/backissue/s2006/laszlo-1.shtml Kosmos Journal Paths to Planetary Civilization. In an attempt to better understand what a Planetary Phase of Civilization might look like in the current context of declining natural resources and increasing consumption, the [[Global scenario group]] used [[scenario analysis]] to arrive at three archetypal futures: Barbarization, in which increasing conflicts result in either a fortress world or complete societal breakdown; Conventional Worlds, in which market forces or [[Policy reform]] slowly precipitate more sustainable practices; and a Great Transition, in which either the sum of fragmented [[Eco-Communalism]] movements add up to a sustainable world or globally coordinated efforts and initiatives result in a new sustainability paradigm.http://www.gtinitiative.org/documents/Great_Transitions.pdf

The [[Kardashev scale]] classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist. ''(see also: [[Civilizations and the Future]], [[Space civilization]])''

The [[Kardashev scale]] classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist. ''(see also: [[Civilizations and the Future]], [[Space civilization]])''

the taxes are quite easily collectible, and the population growth is accompanied by the growth of state revenues. During the intermediate phase, the increasing [[overpopulation]] leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state. As a result, during this phase the state starts experiencing considerable fiscal problems. During the final pre-collapse phases the overpopulation leads to further decrease of per capita production, the surplus production further decreases, state revenues shrink, but the state needs more and more resources to control the growing (though with lower and lower rates) population. Eventually this leads to famines, epidemics, state breakdown, and demographic and civilization collapse (Peter Turchin. ''Historical Dynamics.'' Princeton University Press, 2003:121–127).

the taxes are quite easily collectible, and the population growth is accompanied by the growth of state revenues. During the intermediate phase, the increasing [[overpopulation]] leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state. As a result, during this phase the state starts experiencing considerable fiscal problems. During the final pre-collapse phases the overpopulation leads to further decrease of per capita production, the surplus production further decreases, state revenues shrink, but the state needs more and more resources to control the growing (though with lower and lower rates) population. Eventually this leads to famines, epidemics, state breakdown, and demographic and civilization collapse (Peter Turchin. ''Historical Dynamics.'' Princeton University Press, 2003:121–127).

'''[[Peter Heather]]''' argues in his book ''[[The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians]]''<ref>ISBN 0195159543</ref> that this civilization did not end for moral or economic reasons, but because centuries of contact with barbarians across the frontier generated its own nemesis by making them a much more sophisticated and dangerous adversary. The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire. Although this argument is specific to Rome, it can also be applied to the Asiatic Empire of the Egyptians, to the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] dynasties of China, to the Muslim [[Abbasid Caliphate]], and others.

'''[[Peter Heather]]''' argues in his book ''[[The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians]]''ISBN 0195159543 that this civilization did not end for moral or economic reasons, but because centuries of contact with barbarians across the frontier generated its own nemesis by making them a much more sophisticated and dangerous adversary. The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire. Although this argument is specific to Rome, it can also be applied to the Asiatic Empire of the Egyptians, to the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] dynasties of China, to the Muslim [[Abbasid Caliphate]], and others.

'''[[Bryan Ward-Perkins]]''', in his book ''[[The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization]]''<ref>ISBN 0192807285</ref> shows the real horrors associated with the collapse of a civilization for the people who suffer its effects, unlike many revisionist historians who downplay this. The collapse of complex society meant that even basic plumbing disappeared from the continent for 1,000 years. Similar [[Greek dark ages|Dark Age]] collapses are seen with the Late [[Bronze Age collapse]] in the Eastern Mediterranean, the collapse of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]], on [[Easter Island]] and elsewhere.

'''[[Bryan Ward-Perkins]]''', in his book ''[[The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization]]''<ref>ISBN 0192807285</ref> shows the real horrors associated with the collapse of a civilization for the people who suffer its effects, unlike many revisionist historians who downplay this. The collapse of complex society meant that even basic plumbing disappeared from the continent for 1,000 years. Similar [[Greek dark ages|Dark Age]] collapses are seen with the Late [[Bronze Age collapse]] in the Eastern Mediterranean, the collapse of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]], on [[Easter Island]] and elsewhere.