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A '''language''' is a [[system]] of arbitrary symbols and the rules used to manipulate them.  '''Language''' can also refer to the use of such systems as a general [[phenomenon]].  Though commonly used as a means of communication among people, human language is only one instance of this phenomenon.  This article concerns the properties of language in general.  For information specifically on the use of language by humans see the main article on [[natural language]].

A '''language''' is a [[system]] of arbitrary symbols and the rules used to manipulate them.  '''Language''' can also refer to the use of such systems as a general [[phenomenon]].  Though commonly used as a means of communication among people, human language is only one instance of this phenomenon.  This article concerns the properties of language in general.  For information specifically on the use of language by humans see the main article on [[natural language]].

Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a [[grammar]], or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively inexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them.

Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a [[grammar]], or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively inexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them.

Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''{{lang|es|nada}}'' itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean "nothing". That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] or [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] speakers, ''{{lang|hr|nada}}'' means "hope".

Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''nada'' itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean "nothing". That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] or [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] speakers, ''nada'' means "hope".

However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent (see [[Onomatopoeia]]), but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it.

However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent (see [[Onomatopoeia]]), but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it.

==Literature==

==Literature==

===An Introduction===

===An Introduction===

The term "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it and in what context. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and [[sculpture]]s to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language ([[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of [[inscription]]s or [[digital media]].

The term "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it and in what context. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and [[sculpture]]s to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language ([[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of [[inscription]]s or [[digital media]].

Furthermore, people may perceive a difference between "literature" and some popular forms of written work.  The terms "[[literary fiction]]" and "[[literary merit]]" often serve to distinguish between individual works.  For example, almost all literate people perceive the works of [[Charles Dickens]] as "literature", whereas some critics{{Fact|date=February 2007}} look down on the works of [[Jeffrey Archer]] as unworthy of inclusion under the general heading of "[[English literature]]".  Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature", for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of [[grammar]] and [[syntax]], of an [[verisimilitude|unbelievable]] or disjointed [[plot (narrative)|story-line]], or of inconsistent or unconvincing [[characterization|characters]].  [[Genre fiction]] (for example: romance, crime, or science fiction) may also become excluded from consideration as "literature".

Furthermore, people may perceive a difference between "literature" and some popular forms of written work.  The terms "[[literary fiction]]" and "[[literary merit]]" often serve to distinguish between individual works.  For example, almost all literate people perceive the works of [[Charles Dickens]] as "literature", whereas some critics look down on the works of [[Jeffrey Archer]] as unworthy of inclusion under the general heading of "[[English literature]]".  Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature", for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of [[grammar]] and [[syntax]], of an [[verisimilitude|unbelievable]] or disjointed [[plot (narrative)|story-line]], or of inconsistent or unconvincing [[characterization|characters]].  [[Genre fiction]] (for example: romance, crime, or science fiction) may also become excluded from consideration as "literature".

Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. [[Drawing|Illustrated]] stories, [[hypertext]]s, [[cave painting]]s and inscribed [[monument]]s have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature".

Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. [[Drawing|Illustrated]] stories, [[hypertext]]s, [[cave painting]]s and inscribed [[monument]]s have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature".