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New page: '''Medieval philosophy''' is the philosophy of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the...
'''Medieval philosophy''' is the [[philosophy]] of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as [[medieval]] or the [[Middle Ages]], the period roughly extending from the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] to the [[Renaissance]]. It is defined partly by the process of rediscovering the ancient culture developed in Greece and Rome in the classical period, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate sacred doctrine and secular learning.
The problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, and the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation.
== Character of medieval philosophy ==
The medieval era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance humanists, who saw it as a barbaric 'middle' period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the 'rebirth' or ''renaissance'' of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of philosophical development in Europe and the Middle East, and possibly the richest. Jorge Gracia has argued that 'in intensity, sophistication, and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B.C.' (Gracia, p. 1).
[[Image:Septem-artes-liberales Herrad-von-Landsberg Hortus-delicarium 1180.jpg|thumb|250px|Philosophy seated between the seven [[liberal arts]] – Picture from the [[Hortus deliciarum]] of [[Herrad von Landsberg]] (12th century)]]
Medieval philosophy is characteristically ''theological'' due to one of the heavily debated topics of that age: faith vs. reason. [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] both leaned more on the side of reason. [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Anselm]] both believed in the primacy of faith. The Augustinian solution to the faith/reason problem is to (1) believe, and then (2) seek to understand. Thus, we do find plenty of philosophy in the works of medieval writers, who used the ideas and logical techniques of the ancient philosophers to address difficult theological questions and points of doctrine. [[Thomas Aquinas]] sought a harmony of both faith and reason. While some regard him as strictly a theologian, others disagree. He called philosophy ''ancilla theologiae'', the handmaiden of theology. On the other hand, he also says that theology is the guidepost of philosophy. He writes that philosophy and theology are in harmony because both are created by God. If one's philosophy conflicts with the theology, then a mistake was made. That philosopher must go back and seek out his or her error. Thus, he admits a reciprocal relationship between philosophy and theology.<ref>Ettienne Gilson, ''Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages''.</ref>
Generally speaking, there are three features that characterise medieval thinking. (1) The use of logic, dialectic and analysis to discover the truth – the principle of reasoned argumentation or ''ratio''. (2) Respect for the insights of ancient philosophers, particularly Aristotle, and deference to their authority – the principle of ''auctoritas''. (3) The obligation to co-ordinate the insights of philosophy with theological teaching and revelation – the principle of ''concordia''. The last was the most important. Perhaps no other issue concerned medieval thinkers more than the relation of faith to reason.
== Historical Background ==
=== Islamic philosophy in the Middle Ages ===
{{main|Islamic philosophy|Early Islamic philosophy}}
[[Image:Plato Seneca Aristotle medieval.jpg|thumb|250px|Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle from a medieval manuscript, ''Devotional and Philosophical Writings'', c. 1330]]
Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Mohammed's death in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North Africa and Southern Spain.
As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastranism, and the philosophy of India and Greece. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret Koranic doctrines.
The first stage of this process was the translation into Arabic of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian [[Hunayn Ibn Ishaq]] (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into [[Syriac]], then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.
In the tenth century another school arose among the [[Jacobite Orthodox Church | Jacobites]]. These knew little Greek, and used only Syriac translations. The works translated included nearly all the works of [[Aristotle]], the writings of commentators such as [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]], [[Themistius]] and [[Theophrastus]], most of the dialogues of [[Plato]], and some Neoplatonist works.
The next stage was the development of Islamic theology by the [[Mutakallimun]]. These were divided into the [[Mu'tazili | Mu'tazilites]] and the [[Ash'ari | Ash'arites]]. The Mu'tazilites originated in groups that met in Basrah and Baghdad to discuss how Greek philosophical ideas might help to resolve certain theological problems, such as divine unity, and how human beings can be free even though God is omnipotent. They also developed proofs of the creation of the world, using Christian Neoplatonist ideas. The Ash'arites (founded by Al-Ash'ari, 873-935) tried to clarify Koranic doctrines. They denied the existence of any causation except through God, and therefore denied the freedom of human will. Why does anything happen? 'God wills it'.
[[Al-Kindi]] (801–873) is generally regarded as the first Aristotelian philosopher. He advocated the independent study of philosophy, and also wrote on science and logic. [[Al-Razi]] (865- c. 925), by contrast, defended Plato against Aristotle, who he regarded a corrupter of philosophy. Aristotelianism continued with [[Al-Farabi]] (870-930) and Ibn Sina, known to the Latins as [[Avicenna]] (980-1037). The Ash'arite theologian [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058-1111), by contrast, represents Islamic reaction to Aristotle. Ghazali bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labelled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith.
Islamic Aristotelianism reached its height with Ibn Rushd, known to the Latin as [[Averroes]], best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle. Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on [[Jewish philosophy]].
=== Early Medieval Christian Philosophy ===
{{main|Christian philosophy}}
{{sectstub}}
=== High Middle Ages ===
{{main|Scholasticism}}
{{sectstub}}
==See also==
*[[Christian philosophy]]
*[[Early Muslim philosophy]]
*[[Jewish philosophy]]
*[[Scholastic philosophy]]
*[[Renaissance of the 12th century]]
*[[Supposition Theory]]
==Further reading==
*The [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ London Philosophy Study Guide] offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Medieval.htm Medieval Philosophy]
* Gracia, J.G. and Noone, T.B., ''A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', London 2003
* Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J., ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', Indianapolis 1973
*Maurer, Armand A. [1982]. ''Medieval Philosophy''. 2nd ed. Toronto: [[Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies]].
*Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. [1996]. ''Readings in Medieval Philosophy''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]].
==External links==
*[http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Topics.aspx?TopiCode=Medi Medieval Philosophy section at EpistemeLinks]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12025c.htm Article ''Philosophy'' at The Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://radicalacademy.com/adiphiljewish1.htm Some medieval Jewish philosophers]
*[http://jameshannam.com/medievalscience.htm Medieval Natural Philosophy and the Church] by James Hannam
*[http://tcrnews2.com/vonbalthasarfathers.html The Fathers, the Scholastics, and Ourselves by von Balthasar]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/ Literary forms of Medieval Philosophy]
*[http://cip.cornell.edu/mpat Medieval Philosophy and Theology journal]
[[Category: General Reference]]
The problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, and the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation.
== Character of medieval philosophy ==
The medieval era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance humanists, who saw it as a barbaric 'middle' period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the 'rebirth' or ''renaissance'' of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of philosophical development in Europe and the Middle East, and possibly the richest. Jorge Gracia has argued that 'in intensity, sophistication, and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B.C.' (Gracia, p. 1).
[[Image:Septem-artes-liberales Herrad-von-Landsberg Hortus-delicarium 1180.jpg|thumb|250px|Philosophy seated between the seven [[liberal arts]] – Picture from the [[Hortus deliciarum]] of [[Herrad von Landsberg]] (12th century)]]
Medieval philosophy is characteristically ''theological'' due to one of the heavily debated topics of that age: faith vs. reason. [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] both leaned more on the side of reason. [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Anselm]] both believed in the primacy of faith. The Augustinian solution to the faith/reason problem is to (1) believe, and then (2) seek to understand. Thus, we do find plenty of philosophy in the works of medieval writers, who used the ideas and logical techniques of the ancient philosophers to address difficult theological questions and points of doctrine. [[Thomas Aquinas]] sought a harmony of both faith and reason. While some regard him as strictly a theologian, others disagree. He called philosophy ''ancilla theologiae'', the handmaiden of theology. On the other hand, he also says that theology is the guidepost of philosophy. He writes that philosophy and theology are in harmony because both are created by God. If one's philosophy conflicts with the theology, then a mistake was made. That philosopher must go back and seek out his or her error. Thus, he admits a reciprocal relationship between philosophy and theology.<ref>Ettienne Gilson, ''Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages''.</ref>
Generally speaking, there are three features that characterise medieval thinking. (1) The use of logic, dialectic and analysis to discover the truth – the principle of reasoned argumentation or ''ratio''. (2) Respect for the insights of ancient philosophers, particularly Aristotle, and deference to their authority – the principle of ''auctoritas''. (3) The obligation to co-ordinate the insights of philosophy with theological teaching and revelation – the principle of ''concordia''. The last was the most important. Perhaps no other issue concerned medieval thinkers more than the relation of faith to reason.
== Historical Background ==
=== Islamic philosophy in the Middle Ages ===
{{main|Islamic philosophy|Early Islamic philosophy}}
[[Image:Plato Seneca Aristotle medieval.jpg|thumb|250px|Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle from a medieval manuscript, ''Devotional and Philosophical Writings'', c. 1330]]
Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Mohammed's death in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North Africa and Southern Spain.
As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastranism, and the philosophy of India and Greece. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret Koranic doctrines.
The first stage of this process was the translation into Arabic of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian [[Hunayn Ibn Ishaq]] (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into [[Syriac]], then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.
In the tenth century another school arose among the [[Jacobite Orthodox Church | Jacobites]]. These knew little Greek, and used only Syriac translations. The works translated included nearly all the works of [[Aristotle]], the writings of commentators such as [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]], [[Themistius]] and [[Theophrastus]], most of the dialogues of [[Plato]], and some Neoplatonist works.
The next stage was the development of Islamic theology by the [[Mutakallimun]]. These were divided into the [[Mu'tazili | Mu'tazilites]] and the [[Ash'ari | Ash'arites]]. The Mu'tazilites originated in groups that met in Basrah and Baghdad to discuss how Greek philosophical ideas might help to resolve certain theological problems, such as divine unity, and how human beings can be free even though God is omnipotent. They also developed proofs of the creation of the world, using Christian Neoplatonist ideas. The Ash'arites (founded by Al-Ash'ari, 873-935) tried to clarify Koranic doctrines. They denied the existence of any causation except through God, and therefore denied the freedom of human will. Why does anything happen? 'God wills it'.
[[Al-Kindi]] (801–873) is generally regarded as the first Aristotelian philosopher. He advocated the independent study of philosophy, and also wrote on science and logic. [[Al-Razi]] (865- c. 925), by contrast, defended Plato against Aristotle, who he regarded a corrupter of philosophy. Aristotelianism continued with [[Al-Farabi]] (870-930) and Ibn Sina, known to the Latins as [[Avicenna]] (980-1037). The Ash'arite theologian [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058-1111), by contrast, represents Islamic reaction to Aristotle. Ghazali bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labelled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith.
Islamic Aristotelianism reached its height with Ibn Rushd, known to the Latin as [[Averroes]], best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle. Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on [[Jewish philosophy]].
=== Early Medieval Christian Philosophy ===
{{main|Christian philosophy}}
{{sectstub}}
=== High Middle Ages ===
{{main|Scholasticism}}
{{sectstub}}
==See also==
*[[Christian philosophy]]
*[[Early Muslim philosophy]]
*[[Jewish philosophy]]
*[[Scholastic philosophy]]
*[[Renaissance of the 12th century]]
*[[Supposition Theory]]
==Further reading==
*The [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ London Philosophy Study Guide] offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Medieval.htm Medieval Philosophy]
* Gracia, J.G. and Noone, T.B., ''A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', London 2003
* Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J., ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', Indianapolis 1973
*Maurer, Armand A. [1982]. ''Medieval Philosophy''. 2nd ed. Toronto: [[Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies]].
*Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. [1996]. ''Readings in Medieval Philosophy''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]].
==External links==
*[http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Topics.aspx?TopiCode=Medi Medieval Philosophy section at EpistemeLinks]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12025c.htm Article ''Philosophy'' at The Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://radicalacademy.com/adiphiljewish1.htm Some medieval Jewish philosophers]
*[http://jameshannam.com/medievalscience.htm Medieval Natural Philosophy and the Church] by James Hannam
*[http://tcrnews2.com/vonbalthasarfathers.html The Fathers, the Scholastics, and Ourselves by von Balthasar]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/ Literary forms of Medieval Philosophy]
*[http://cip.cornell.edu/mpat Medieval Philosophy and Theology journal]
[[Category: General Reference]]