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The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within [[philosophy]] over the basis of [[knowledge]] and the validity of various absolutes. With classical certainties thought to be overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific, ethical, and logical problems, '''20th-century philosophy''' was set for a series of attempts variously to reform, preserve, alter, abolish, previously conceived limits.

The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within [[philosophy]] over the basis of [[knowledge]] and the validity of various absolutes. With classical certainties thought to be overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific, ethical, and logical problems, '''20th-century philosophy''' was set for a series of attempts variously to reform, preserve, alter, abolish, previously conceived limits.

Just as profoundly, historical events such as the [[World Wars]], the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], the near collapse of European parliamentary democracy in the 1930s and 1940s, the [[Holocaust]], the use of [[atomic weapons]] on [[Imperial Japan]], continued colonial violence, the foundation of the [[United Nations]], the elaboration of new doctrines of [[human rights]], the [[Vietnam War]], the failure of revolutionary sentiment in [[1968]], the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and its client states, continuing inequities in global development and civil society, the resurgence of "fundamental" religious identity in [[Christian]], [[Jewish]], [[Islamic]], and [[Hindu]] contexts, and seemingly irrepressible if intermittent [[genocide|genocidal]] activity called into question many philosophical doctrines on human [[rationality]] and created ever sharper demands on [[moral philosophy|moral]], [[political philosophy]], and [[philosophy of religion]].

Just as profoundly, historical events such as the [[World Wars]], the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], the near collapse of European parliamentary democracy in the 1930s and 1940s, the [[Holocaust]], the use of [[atomic weapons]] on [[Imperial Japan]], continued colonial violence, the foundation of the [[United Nations]], the elaboration of new doctrines of [[human rights]], the [[Vietnam War]], the failure of revolutionary sentiment in [[1968]], the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and its client states, continuing inequities in global development and civil society, the resurgence of "fundamental" religious identity in [[Christian]], [[Jewish]], [[Islamic]], and [[Hindu]] contexts, and seemingly irrepressible if intermittent [[genocide|genocidal]] activity called into question many philosophical doctrines on human [[rationality]] and created ever sharper demands on [[moral philosophy|moral]], [[political philosophy]], and [[philosophy of religion]].

== See also ==

== See also ==

==History of postmodern philosophy==

==History of postmodern philosophy==

===Early influences on postmodern philosophy===

===Early influences on postmodern philosophy===

The most influential early postmodern philosophers were [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], and [[Jacques Derrida]].  Foucault approached postmodern philosophy from a historical perspective, building upon [[structuralism]], but at the same time rejecting structuralism by re-historicizing and destabilizing the philosophical structures of Western thought.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}}  He also argued that knowledge is defined and changed by the operation of ''power''.

The most influential early postmodern philosophers were [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], and [[Jacques Derrida]].  Foucault approached postmodern philosophy from a historical perspective, building upon [[structuralism]], but at the same time rejecting structuralism by re-historicizing and destabilizing the philosophical structures of Western thought.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}}  He also argued that knowledge is defined and changed by the operation of ''power''.

In America, the most famous postmodernist is [[Richard Rorty]].  Originally an analytic philosopher, Rorty believed that combining [[Willard Van Orman Quine]]'s criticism of the analytic-synthetic distinction with [[Wilfrid Sellars]]'s critique of the "[[Myth of the Given]]" allowed for an abandonment of the view of the thought or language as a mirror of a reality or external world.  Further, drawing upon [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]]'s criticism of the dualism between conceptual scheme and empirical content, he challenges the sense of questioning whether our particular concepts are related to the world in an appropriate way, whether we can justify our ways of describing the world as compared with other ways.  He argued that truth was not "out-there", but was in language and language was whatever served our purposes in any particular time; ancient languages are sometimes untranslatable into modern ones.  Donald Davidson is not usually considered a postmodernist, although he and Rorty have both acknowledged that there are few differences between their philosophies.[http://www.unc.edu/~knobe/rorty.html] An interview with Rorty] Davidson, D., 1986, "A Coherence Theory of Truth and Knowledge," Truth And Interpretation, Perspectives on the Philosophy of Donald Davidson, ed. Ernest LePore, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, afterwords.

In America, the most famous postmodernist is [[Richard Rorty]].  Originally an analytic philosopher, Rorty believed that combining [[Willard Van Orman Quine]]'s criticism of the analytic-synthetic distinction with [[Wilfrid Sellars]]'s critique of the "[[Myth of the Given]]" allowed for an abandonment of the view of the thought or language as a mirror of a reality or external world.  Further, drawing upon [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]]'s criticism of the dualism between conceptual scheme and empirical content, he challenges the sense of questioning whether our particular concepts are related to the world in an appropriate way, whether we can justify our ways of describing the world as compared with other ways.  He argued that truth was not "out-there", but was in language and language was whatever served our purposes in any particular time; ancient languages are sometimes untranslatable into modern ones.  Donald Davidson is not usually considered a postmodernist, although he and Rorty have both acknowledged that there are few differences between their philosophies.[https://www.unc.edu/~knobe/rorty.html] An interview with Rorty] Davidson, D., 1986, "A Coherence Theory of Truth and Knowledge," Truth And Interpretation, Perspectives on the Philosophy of Donald Davidson, ed. Ernest LePore, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, afterwords.

The writings of Lyotard were largely concerned with the role of narrative in human culture, and particularly how that role has changed as we have left modernity and entered a "postindustrial" or [[postmodernity|postmodern condition]].  He argued that modern philosophies legitimized their truth-claims not (as they themselves claimed) on logical or empirical grounds, but rather on the grounds of accepted stories (or "[[metanarratives]]") about knowledge and the world -- comparing these with Wittgenstein's concept of [[language-game]]s.  He further argued that in our postmodern condition, these metanarratives no longer work to legitimize truth-claims.  He suggested that in the wake of the collapse of modern metanarratives, people are developing a new "language game" -- one that does not make claims to absolute truth but rather celebrates a world of ever-changing relationships (among people and between people and the world).  

The writings of Lyotard were largely concerned with the role of narrative in human culture, and particularly how that role has changed as we have left modernity and entered a "postindustrial" or [[postmodernity|postmodern condition]].  He argued that modern philosophies legitimized their truth-claims not (as they themselves claimed) on logical or empirical grounds, but rather on the grounds of accepted stories (or "[[metanarratives]]") about knowledge and the world -- comparing these with Wittgenstein's concept of [[language-game]]s.  He further argued that in our postmodern condition, these metanarratives no longer work to legitimize truth-claims.  He suggested that in the wake of the collapse of modern metanarratives, people are developing a new "language game" -- one that does not make claims to absolute truth but rather celebrates a world of ever-changing relationships (among people and between people and the world).  

== See also ==

== See also ==

*[[Postmodernism]]

*[[Postmodernism]]

*[[Natural philosophy]]

*[[Natural philosophy]]

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/ Postmodernism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]

* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/ Postmodernism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Contemporary Philosophy]]

[[Category: Contemporary Philosophy]]