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Jump to navigationJump to searchNew page: Image:lighterstill.jpg '''Prayer''' is the act of communicating with a deity or spirit in worship. Specific forms of this may include praise, requesting guidance or assist...
[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]]
'''Prayer''' is the act of communicating with a [[deity]] or [[spirit]] in [[worship]]. Specific forms of this may include praise, requesting guidance or assistance, confessing [[sins]], as an act of reparation or an expression of one's [[thoughts]] and [[emotion]]s. The words used in prayer may take the form of [[intercession]], a hymn, incantation or a spontaneous utterance in the person's praying words. Praying can be done in [[public]], as a [[group]], or in [[private]].
Most major [[religion]]s in the world involve prayer in one way or another in their [[ritual]]s. Although in many cases the act of prayer is ritualized and must be followed through a sometimes strict sequence of actions (even going as far as restricting who may pray), other religions, mainly the Abrahamic religions, teach that prayer can be done spontaneously by anyone at any [[moment]].
Scientific studies regarding the use of prayer have mostly concentrated on its effect on the healing of sick or injured people. The efficacy of petition in prayer for physical [[healing]] to a deity has been evaluated in numerous studies, with contradictory results.[http://www.abelard.org/galton/galton.htm]. Though there has been criticism of the way the studies were conducted.[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gary_posner/godccu.html]
==Etymology==
''Pray'' entered Middle [[English]] as ''preyen, prayen,''and ''preien'' around 1290, recorded in ''The early'' ''South-English Legendary'' I. 112/200: ''And preide is fader wel ȝ erne,'' in the sense of "to ask earnestly." The next recorded use in 1300 is simply "to pray."[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=p&p=27]
The word came to English from Old French ''preier,'' "to request" (first seen in ''La Séquence de Ste. Eulalie, ''ca. 880) In modern French ''prier,'' "to pray," the stem-vowel is leveled under that of the stem-stressed forms, ''il prie'', etc. The origin of the word before this time is less certain. Compare the Italian ''Pregare'', "to ask" or more rarely "pray for something" and Spanish ''preguntar'', "ask."
One possibility is the Late [[Latin]] ''precare'' (as seen in Priscian), classical Latin ''precari'' "to entreat, pray" from Latin ''precari,'' from ''precor, ''from ''prec-, prex'' "request, entreaty, prayer." ''Precor ''was used by [[Virgil]], [[Livy]], [[Cicero]], and [[Ovid]] in the accusative. Dative forms are also found in Livy and Aurelius Propertius. With ''pro'' in the ablative, it is found in Plinius Valerianus’s ''physic, ''and Aurelius Augustinus’s''' '''''Epistulae''. It also could be used for a thing. From classical times, it was used in both religious and secular senses. ''Prex'' is recorded as far back as T. Maccius Plautus (254 B.C. – ?). Other senses of ''precor'' include "to wish well or ill to any one," "to hail, salute," or "address one with a wish."
The Latin ''orare'' "to speak" later took over the role of ''precari ''to mean "pray." The Middle English word ''Orison'', whose meaning in modern English has been taken over by ''Prayer'', has been derived from this word via the Old French word ''oraison''.[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=o&p=7]
The Spanish form ''preguntar'' was first recorded in ''El Cantar de Mio Çid'' (ca. 1150)'' '' and possibly comes from Vulgar Latin ''praecontare,'' an alteration of the Classical Latin ''percontari, perconto, percontor'' "interrogate" although the Spanish verb for "pray" today is (among Catholics) ''rezar,'' which previously meant "to say" from the Latin ''recitare''. Among Spanish-speaking Protestants, the verb ''orar'' is used instead, and a prayer is called ''oración''. The Portuguese [[word]] ''pregar ''"to preach," or less commonly, "to exhort," is also mentioned at times, although it is from the Latin ''praedicare'','' ''"to cry in [[public]], proclaim," hence "to declare, state, say," in medieval Latin "to preach," and in Logic "to assert," from ''præ'' "forth" + ''dicare'' "to make known, proclaim." Compare the Spanish ''predicar''. More closely related is the Portuguese ''perguntar,'' "to ask" and by extension "ask for." ''Pray'' is akin to Old English ''gefræge ''"hearsay, report," ''fricgan, frignan, frinan ''to ask, inquire, [[Old High German]] ''fraga ''question, ''fragen ''"to ask" (in modern German, "pray" is ''beten, ''"question" ''frage''), Old Norse ''frett ''"question," ''fregna ''"to inquire, find out," Gothic ''fraihman ''"to find out by [[inquiry]]," Tocharian A ''prak- ''"to ask," [[Sanskrit]] roots, ''pracch- prask-,'' ''pras ''"interrogation," and ''prcchati ''"he asks"
==Forms of prayer==
Various [[spiritual]] [[tradition]]s offer a wide variety of devotional acts. There are morning and evening prayers, graces said over meals, and reverent physical gestures. Some Christians bow their heads and fold their hands. Some native Americans regard dancing as a form of prayer.[http://www.timescall.com/faith/Faith-Story.asp?id=10650]
Some Sufis whirl.[http://www.whirlingdervishes.org/whirlingdervishes.htm]
Hindus chant mantras.[http://www.omkarananda-ashram.org/Publications/how_to_pray.htm] Orthodox Jews sway their bodies back and forth [http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/practices/worship_prayer.htm] This practice is known, in [[Yiddish]], as ''shuckling'' and [[Muslims]] kneel and prostrate. Quakers keep silent.[http://www.quakerinfo.org/quakerism/worship.html]
Some pray according to standardized [[ritual]]s and liturgies, while others prefer extemporaneous prayers. Still others combine the two.
These methods show a variety of understandings to prayer, which are led by underlying [[belief]]s. These beliefs may be that the [[finite]] can actually communicate with the [[infinite]], that the infinite is interested in communicating with the finite, that prayer is intended to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, rather than to influence the recipient, that prayer is intended to train a person to [[focus]] on the recipient through [[philosophy]] and [[intellectual]] contemplation, that prayer is intended to enable a person to gain a direct [[experience]] of the recipient, that prayer is intended to affect the very fabric of [[reality]] as we perceive it, that prayer is a catalyst for change in one's self and/or one's circumstances, or likewise those of third party beneficiaries, that the recipient desires and appreciates prayer, or any combination of these.
The act of prayer is attested in written sources as early as 5000 years ago. Some [[anthropology|anthropologists]], such as Sir [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] and Sir [[James George Frazer]], believed that the earliest intelligent modern humans practiced something that we would recognize today as prayer.
[[Friedrich Heiler]] is often cited in Christian circles for his systematic ''Typology of Prayer'' which lists six types of prayer: primitive, ritual, Greek cultural, philosophical, mystical and prophetic. (Christian theology ISBN 0-8010-2182-0)
==Approaches to prayer==
===Direct petitions to God===
From Biblical times to today, the most common form of prayer is to directly appeal to God to grant one's requests. This in many ways is the simplest form of prayer. Some have termed this the social approach to prayer.[http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8b69p1w7/] In this view, a person directly enters into God's rest, and asks for their needs to be fulfilled. God listens to the prayer, and may or may not choose to answer in the way one asks of Him. This is the primary approach to prayer found in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[New Testament]], most of the Church writings, and in rabbinic literature such as the [[Talmud]].
===Educational approach===
In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it is meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, but not to influence. This view is expressed by Rabbi Nosson Scherman in the overview to the Artscroll Siddur (p. XIII).
Among Christian theologians, Edward McKendree Bounds stated the educational purpose of prayer in every chapter of his book, ''The Necessity of Prayer''. Prayer books such as the [[Book of Common Prayer]] are both a result of this approach and an exhortation to keep it.
===Rationalist approach===
In this view, ultimate goal of prayer is to help train a person to [[focus]] on [[divinity]] through [[philosophy]] and [[intellectual]] contemplation. This approach was taken by the Jewish scholar and philosopher [[Maimonides]] and the other medieval rationalists; it became popular in Jewish, Christian and Islamic intellectual circles, but never became the most popular understanding of prayer among the laity in any of these faiths. In all three of these faiths today, a significant minority of people still hold to this approach.
===Experiential approach===
In this approach, the purpose of prayer is to enable the person praying to gain a direct [[experience]] of the recipient of the prayer (or as close to direct as a specific theology permits). This approach is very significant in [[Christianity]] and widespread in [[Judaism]] (although less popular theologically). In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], this approach is known as [[hesychasm]]. It is also widespread in [[Sufi]] Islam, and in some forms of [[mysticism]]. It has some similarities with the rationalist approach, since it can also involve [[contemplation]], although the contemplation is not generally viewed as being as rational or intellectual.
==Prayer Groups==
A prayer group is a group of people that meet to pray together. These groups, formed mostly within Christian congregations but occasionally among Muslim groups as well,[http://islamicprayergroup.com] gather outside of the congregation's regular worship service to pray for perceived needs, sometimes within the congregation, sometimes within their religious group at large. However, these groups often pray also for the world around them, including people who do not share their [[belief]]s.
Although there is no [[universal]]ly held method for conducting a prayer group meeting, a meeting's program will often begin with every participant proclaiming the [[authority]] of [[God]], then sharing their own [[personal]] needs to other members of the group. Those needs are then prayed for, followed by the known needs of members of the congregation who are not taking part in the meeting. Needs outside the congregation are then prayed for.
Many prayer group meetings are held according to a regular schedule, usually once a week. However, extraordinary events, such as the [http://www.worldwideprayergroup.org September 11 attacks] or major disasters spawned a number of improvised prayer group meetings. Prayer groups do not need to meet in person, and there are a vast array of single-purpose prayer groups in the world.[http://www.facebook.com/directory/groups/P684819-685150]
==Prayer healing==
Prayer is often used as a means of [[faith]] [[healing]] in an attempt to use religious or [[spiritual]] means to prevent illness, cure disease, or improve health. Those who attempt to heal by prayer, mental practices, spiritual [[insight]]s, or other techniques claim they can summon [[divine]] or supernatural intervention on behalf of the ill. According to the varied beliefs of those who practice it, faith healing may be said to afford gradual relief from pain or sickness or to bring about a sudden "miracle cure", and it may be used in place of, or in tandem with, conventional medical techniques for alleviating or curing diseases. Faith healing has been criticized on the grounds that those who use it may delay seeking potentially curative conventional medical care. This is particularly problematic when parents use faith healing techniques on children.
===Efficacy of prayer healing===
In 1872, [[Francis Galton]] conducted a famous [[statistics|statistical]] [[experiment]] to determine whether prayer had a physical effect on the external environment. Galton hypothesized that if prayer was effective, members of the British Royal family would live longer, given that thousands prayed for their wellbeing every Sunday. He therefore compared longevity in the British Royal family with that of the general population, and found no difference. While the experiment was probably intended to satirize, and suffered from a number of confounders, it set the precedent for a number of different studies, the results of which are contradictory.
Two studies claimed that patients who are being prayed for recover more quickly or more frequently although critics have claimed that the methodology of such studies are flawed, and the perceived effect disappears when controls are tightened.[http://skeptico.blogs.com/skeptico/2005/07/prayer_still_us.html] One such study, with a double-blind design and about 500 subjects per group, suggested that intercessory prayer by born again Christians had a statistically significant positive effect on a coronary care unit population. Critics contend that there were severe methodological problems with this study. Another such study was reported by Harris ''et al'' Critics also claim Byrd's 1988 study was not fully double-blinded, and that in the Harris study, patients actually had a longer hospital stay in the prayer group, if one discounts the patients in both groups who left before prayers began, although the Harris study did demonstrate the prayed for patients on average received lower course scores (indicating better recovery).
One of the largest randomized, blind clinical trials was a remote ''retroactive'' intercessory prayer study conducted in Israel by Leibovici. This study used 3393 patient records from 1990-96, and blindly assigned some of these to an intercessory prayer group. The prayer group had shorter hospital stays and duration of fever.
Many believe that prayer can aid in recovery, not due to divine influence but due to psychological and physical benefits. It has also been suggested that if a person knows that he or she is being prayed for it can be uplifting and increase morale, thus aiding recovery. (See [[Subject-expectancy effect]].) Many studies have suggested that prayer can reduce physical stress, regardless of the god or gods a person prays to, and this may be true for many worldly reasons. According to a study by Centra State Hospital, "the psychological benefits of prayer may help reduce stress and anxiety, promote a more positive outlook, and strengthen the will to live." [http://www.centrastate.com/body.cfm?id=520&action=detail&articlepath=/Atoz/dc/cen/canc/gen/mindspirit.html#7 Mind and Spirit]. ''from the Health Library section of'' [http://www.centrastate.com CentraState Healthcare System]. Other practices such as [[Yoga]], [[Tai Chi]], and [[Meditation]] may also have a positive impact on physical and psychological health.
Others feel that the [[concept]] of conducting prayer experiments reflects a misunderstanding of the purpose of prayer. The previously mentioned American Heart Journal study published in the American Heart Journal indicated that some of the intercessors who took part in it complained about the scripted nature of the prayers that were imposed to them, saying that this is not the way they usually conduct prayer:
==See Also==
* [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_91 Paper 91 - The Evolution of Prayer]
==Quote==
"Prayer is entirely a [[personal]] and spontaneous expression of the attitude of the [[soul]] toward the spirit; prayer should be the [[communion]] of love and the expression of fellowship. Prayer, when indited by the [[spirit]], leads to co-operative spiritual progress. The [[ideal]] prayer is a form of spiritual communion which leads to intelligent [[worship]]. True praying is the sincere attitude of reaching heavenward for the attainment of your ideals."[http://mercy.urantia.org/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper144.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper144.html&line=51#mfs]
==References and footnotes==
# Clowney, Edmond (1988). Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David. eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 526–527. ISBN 0851106366.
# Galton F. Statistical inquiries into the efficacy of prayer. Fortnightly Review 1872;68:125-35. Online version.
# Byrd RC, Positive therapeutic effects of intercessory prayer in a coronary care unit population. South Med J 1988;81:826-9. PMID 3393937.
# Harris WS, Gowda M, Kolb JW, Strychacz CP, Vacek JL, Jones PG, Forker A, O'Keefe JH, McCallister BD. A randomized, controlled trial of the effects of remote, intercessory prayer on outcomes in patients admitted to the coronary care unit. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2273-8. PMID 10547166.
# O'Laoire S. An experimental study of the effects of distant, intercessory prayer on self-esteem, anxiety, and depression. Altern Ther Health Med 1997;3:38-53. PMID 9375429.
# Benson H, Dusek JA et al. "Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: a multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer." American Heart Journal. 2006 April; 151(4): p. 762-4.
# http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gary_posner/godccu.html A critique of the San Francisco hospital study on intercessory prayer and healing - Gary P. Posner, M.D.
# "Online Etymology Dictionary" (HTML). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=p&p=27].
# "Online Etymology Dictionary" (HTML). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=o&p=7]
# Sidwell, Melanie M. (8-15-2008). "Dance as prayer" (HTML). Longmont Times-Call. [http://www.timescall.com/faith/Faith-Story.asp?id=10650].
# "The Whirling Dervishes of Rumi" (HTML). [http://www.whirlingdervishes.org/whirlingdervishes.htm].
# Omkarananda, Swami (11-12-2008). "How to pray" (HTML). Omkarananda Ashram Himalayas. [http://www.omkarananda-ashram.org/Publications/how_to_pray.htm].
# "Jewish Worship and Prayer" (HTML). Religion Facts. [http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/practices/worship_prayer.htm]. This practice is known, in Yiddish, as shuckling.
# Avery, Chel. "Quaker Worship" (HTML). Quaker Information Center. [http://www.quakerinfo.org/quakerism/worship.html].
# Stephens, Ferris J. (1950). Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Princeton. pp. 391–2.
# Zaleski, Carol; Zaleski, Philip (2006). Prayer: A History. Boston: Mariner Books. pp. 24–25. ISBN 0-618-77360-6.
# Erickson, Millard J. (1998). Christian theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. ISBN 0-8010-2182-0.
# Knight, Kevin. "Prayer" (HTML). New Advent. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12345b.htm].
# See, for example, James 5:14
# Scheckel, Roger J. (January 2004). "The Angelus" (HTML). The Marian Catechists. [http://www.mariancatechist.com/html/spiritualdevelopment/prayer/sanctifyingyourdaywiththeangelus.htm].
# "Buddhist Art" (HTML). Pacific Asia Museum. 2003. [http://www.pacificasiamuseum.org/buddhism/html/essay4.htm]. Retrieved on 2008-10-06.
# See, for example, McCarty, Julie (2008). "Faith - Grandma's prayer candle" (HTML). Bayard Inc.. [http://www.catholicdigest.com/article/grandmas-prayer-candle].
# Emerick, Yahiya (2002). [www.idiotsguides.com The Complete Idiot's Guide to Islam]. Indianapolis IN: Alpha Books. pp. 127–128. ISBN 0-02-864233-3.
# Rayor, Diane. "The Homeric Hymns" (HTML). University of California Press. [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9232/9232.intro.ph.
# "Religio Romana" (HTML). Nova Roma. [http://www.novaroma.org/religio_romana/posture.html].
# Frederic De Forest Allen, Remnants of Early Latin (Boston: Ginn & Heath 1880 and Ginn & Co 1907).
# Cato's Mars Prayer, found in De Agri Cultura, translated at[1]
# Translation by Bellows.
# Grundy, Stephan (1998). "Freyja and Frigg" as collected in Billington, Sandra. The Concept of the Goddess, page 60. Routledge ISBN 0415197899
# Hollander, Lee (trans.) (1955). The saga of the Jómsvíkings, page 100. University of Texas Press ISBN 0292776233
# Gordon, R.K. (1962). Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Everyman's Library #794. M. Dent & Sons, LTD.
# Lambdin, Laura C and Robert T. (2000). Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature, page 227. Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0313300542
# Wells, C. J." (1985). German, a Linguistic History to 1945: A Linguistic History to 1945, page 51. Oxford University Press ISBN 0198157959
# See John 16:23, 26; John 14:13; John 15:16
# Catholic Encyclopedia [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12775a.htm]
# Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed, 1989
# "Christianity - Pentecostalism" (HTML). Australian Broadcasting Company. [http://www.abc.net.au/religion/stories/s820631.htm].
# Acts 2:1-13 31
# George Barton Cutten, Speaking with Tongues Historically and Psychologically Considered, Yale University Press, 1927.
# Goodman, Felicitas D., Speaking in Tongues: A Cross-Cultural Study in Glossolalia. University of Chicago Press, 1972.
# Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–226: quote on p211
# Samarin, William J., Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972, quote on p73
# Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–226: quote on p213
# Spanos, Nicholas P.; Hewitt, Erin C.: Glossolalia: 'A test of the 'trance' and psychopathology hypotheses.' Journal of Abnormal Psychology: 1979 Aug Vol 88(4) 427-434.
# "Is there no intercessory prayer?". [http://www.christianscience.org/QAIsthereintercesprayer.html].
# Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 274–275. ISBN 1851681841.
# See for example [http://www.centreguephel.org/prieres.html] (French)
# Collins, Steven (1982). Selfless Persons. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 6. ISBN 0-521-39726.
# Sangharakshita, Bhikshu (1993). A Survey of Buddhism. Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom: Windhorse Publications. pp. 449–460. ISBN 0904766659
# Keown, Damien (ed.) with Hodge, Stephen; Jones, Charles; Tinti, Paola (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. Great Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press. P.100. ISBN 0-19-860560-9
# "Animism Profile in Cambodia". OMF. [http://www.omf.org/omf/cambodia/about_cambodia/animism_profile].
# "Prayer stick". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
# Elkin, Adolphus P. (1973). Aboriginal Men of High Degree: Initiation and Sorcery in the World's Oldest Tradition. Inner Traditions - Bear & Company.
# Greenberg, Moshe. Biblical Prose Prayer: As a Window to the Popular Religion of Ancient Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1983 [http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8b69p1w7/]
# Bounds, Edward McKendree (1907). The Necessity of Prayer. AGES Software.
# "Islamicprayergroup.com". 2008. [http://islamicprayergroup.com].
# [www.worldwideprayergroup.org "World Wide Prayer Group"] (HTML).
# [www.facebook.com/directory/groups/P684819-685150 "Prayer Group - Prayer Meeting Praise Team"]
# [http://skeptico.blogs.com/skeptico/2005/07/prayer_still_us.html Prayer still useless]
# Tessman I and Tessman J "Efficacy of Prayer: A Critical Examination of Claims," Skeptical Inquirer, March/April 2000,
# Leibovici L. Effects of remote, retroactive intercessory prayer on outcomes in patients with bloodstream infection: randomized controlled trial. BMJ 2001;323:1450-1. PMID 11751349.
# Aviles JM, Whelan SE, Hernke DA, Williams BA, Kenny KE, O'Fallon WM, Kopecky SL. Intercessory prayer and cardiovascular disease progression in a coronary care unit population: a randomized controlled trial. Mayo Clin Proc 2001;76:1192-8. PMID 11761499.
# Krucoff MW, Crater SW, Gallup D, Blankenship JC, Cuffe M, Guarneri M, Krieger RA, Kshettry VR, Morris K, Oz M, Pichard A, Sketch MH Jr, Koenig HG, Mark D, Lee KL. Music, imagery, touch, and prayer as adjuncts to interventional cardiac care: the Monitoring and Actualisation of Noetic Trainings (MANTRA) II randomised study. Lancet 2005;366:211-7. PMID 16023511.
# Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: A multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer[2]
# The Deity in the DataWhat the latest prayer study tells us about God.[3]
# Herbert Benson et al., "Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: A multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer", American Heart Journal, Volume 151, No 4, 934-42 (2006)
# Mind and Spirit. from the Health Library section of CentraState Healthcare System. Accessed May 18, 2006.
==External links==
* [http://www.prayerinamerica.org/ PBS Documentary on Prayer in America]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/23/AR2006032302177.html/ Scientific study of effect of prayer on recovery of patients]
[[Category: Religion]]
'''Prayer''' is the act of communicating with a [[deity]] or [[spirit]] in [[worship]]. Specific forms of this may include praise, requesting guidance or assistance, confessing [[sins]], as an act of reparation or an expression of one's [[thoughts]] and [[emotion]]s. The words used in prayer may take the form of [[intercession]], a hymn, incantation or a spontaneous utterance in the person's praying words. Praying can be done in [[public]], as a [[group]], or in [[private]].
Most major [[religion]]s in the world involve prayer in one way or another in their [[ritual]]s. Although in many cases the act of prayer is ritualized and must be followed through a sometimes strict sequence of actions (even going as far as restricting who may pray), other religions, mainly the Abrahamic religions, teach that prayer can be done spontaneously by anyone at any [[moment]].
Scientific studies regarding the use of prayer have mostly concentrated on its effect on the healing of sick or injured people. The efficacy of petition in prayer for physical [[healing]] to a deity has been evaluated in numerous studies, with contradictory results.[http://www.abelard.org/galton/galton.htm]. Though there has been criticism of the way the studies were conducted.[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gary_posner/godccu.html]
==Etymology==
''Pray'' entered Middle [[English]] as ''preyen, prayen,''and ''preien'' around 1290, recorded in ''The early'' ''South-English Legendary'' I. 112/200: ''And preide is fader wel ȝ erne,'' in the sense of "to ask earnestly." The next recorded use in 1300 is simply "to pray."[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=p&p=27]
The word came to English from Old French ''preier,'' "to request" (first seen in ''La Séquence de Ste. Eulalie, ''ca. 880) In modern French ''prier,'' "to pray," the stem-vowel is leveled under that of the stem-stressed forms, ''il prie'', etc. The origin of the word before this time is less certain. Compare the Italian ''Pregare'', "to ask" or more rarely "pray for something" and Spanish ''preguntar'', "ask."
One possibility is the Late [[Latin]] ''precare'' (as seen in Priscian), classical Latin ''precari'' "to entreat, pray" from Latin ''precari,'' from ''precor, ''from ''prec-, prex'' "request, entreaty, prayer." ''Precor ''was used by [[Virgil]], [[Livy]], [[Cicero]], and [[Ovid]] in the accusative. Dative forms are also found in Livy and Aurelius Propertius. With ''pro'' in the ablative, it is found in Plinius Valerianus’s ''physic, ''and Aurelius Augustinus’s''' '''''Epistulae''. It also could be used for a thing. From classical times, it was used in both religious and secular senses. ''Prex'' is recorded as far back as T. Maccius Plautus (254 B.C. – ?). Other senses of ''precor'' include "to wish well or ill to any one," "to hail, salute," or "address one with a wish."
The Latin ''orare'' "to speak" later took over the role of ''precari ''to mean "pray." The Middle English word ''Orison'', whose meaning in modern English has been taken over by ''Prayer'', has been derived from this word via the Old French word ''oraison''.[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=o&p=7]
The Spanish form ''preguntar'' was first recorded in ''El Cantar de Mio Çid'' (ca. 1150)'' '' and possibly comes from Vulgar Latin ''praecontare,'' an alteration of the Classical Latin ''percontari, perconto, percontor'' "interrogate" although the Spanish verb for "pray" today is (among Catholics) ''rezar,'' which previously meant "to say" from the Latin ''recitare''. Among Spanish-speaking Protestants, the verb ''orar'' is used instead, and a prayer is called ''oración''. The Portuguese [[word]] ''pregar ''"to preach," or less commonly, "to exhort," is also mentioned at times, although it is from the Latin ''praedicare'','' ''"to cry in [[public]], proclaim," hence "to declare, state, say," in medieval Latin "to preach," and in Logic "to assert," from ''præ'' "forth" + ''dicare'' "to make known, proclaim." Compare the Spanish ''predicar''. More closely related is the Portuguese ''perguntar,'' "to ask" and by extension "ask for." ''Pray'' is akin to Old English ''gefræge ''"hearsay, report," ''fricgan, frignan, frinan ''to ask, inquire, [[Old High German]] ''fraga ''question, ''fragen ''"to ask" (in modern German, "pray" is ''beten, ''"question" ''frage''), Old Norse ''frett ''"question," ''fregna ''"to inquire, find out," Gothic ''fraihman ''"to find out by [[inquiry]]," Tocharian A ''prak- ''"to ask," [[Sanskrit]] roots, ''pracch- prask-,'' ''pras ''"interrogation," and ''prcchati ''"he asks"
==Forms of prayer==
Various [[spiritual]] [[tradition]]s offer a wide variety of devotional acts. There are morning and evening prayers, graces said over meals, and reverent physical gestures. Some Christians bow their heads and fold their hands. Some native Americans regard dancing as a form of prayer.[http://www.timescall.com/faith/Faith-Story.asp?id=10650]
Some Sufis whirl.[http://www.whirlingdervishes.org/whirlingdervishes.htm]
Hindus chant mantras.[http://www.omkarananda-ashram.org/Publications/how_to_pray.htm] Orthodox Jews sway their bodies back and forth [http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/practices/worship_prayer.htm] This practice is known, in [[Yiddish]], as ''shuckling'' and [[Muslims]] kneel and prostrate. Quakers keep silent.[http://www.quakerinfo.org/quakerism/worship.html]
Some pray according to standardized [[ritual]]s and liturgies, while others prefer extemporaneous prayers. Still others combine the two.
These methods show a variety of understandings to prayer, which are led by underlying [[belief]]s. These beliefs may be that the [[finite]] can actually communicate with the [[infinite]], that the infinite is interested in communicating with the finite, that prayer is intended to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, rather than to influence the recipient, that prayer is intended to train a person to [[focus]] on the recipient through [[philosophy]] and [[intellectual]] contemplation, that prayer is intended to enable a person to gain a direct [[experience]] of the recipient, that prayer is intended to affect the very fabric of [[reality]] as we perceive it, that prayer is a catalyst for change in one's self and/or one's circumstances, or likewise those of third party beneficiaries, that the recipient desires and appreciates prayer, or any combination of these.
The act of prayer is attested in written sources as early as 5000 years ago. Some [[anthropology|anthropologists]], such as Sir [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] and Sir [[James George Frazer]], believed that the earliest intelligent modern humans practiced something that we would recognize today as prayer.
[[Friedrich Heiler]] is often cited in Christian circles for his systematic ''Typology of Prayer'' which lists six types of prayer: primitive, ritual, Greek cultural, philosophical, mystical and prophetic. (Christian theology ISBN 0-8010-2182-0)
==Approaches to prayer==
===Direct petitions to God===
From Biblical times to today, the most common form of prayer is to directly appeal to God to grant one's requests. This in many ways is the simplest form of prayer. Some have termed this the social approach to prayer.[http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8b69p1w7/] In this view, a person directly enters into God's rest, and asks for their needs to be fulfilled. God listens to the prayer, and may or may not choose to answer in the way one asks of Him. This is the primary approach to prayer found in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[New Testament]], most of the Church writings, and in rabbinic literature such as the [[Talmud]].
===Educational approach===
In this view, prayer is not a conversation. Rather, it is meant to inculcate certain attitudes in the one who prays, but not to influence. This view is expressed by Rabbi Nosson Scherman in the overview to the Artscroll Siddur (p. XIII).
Among Christian theologians, Edward McKendree Bounds stated the educational purpose of prayer in every chapter of his book, ''The Necessity of Prayer''. Prayer books such as the [[Book of Common Prayer]] are both a result of this approach and an exhortation to keep it.
===Rationalist approach===
In this view, ultimate goal of prayer is to help train a person to [[focus]] on [[divinity]] through [[philosophy]] and [[intellectual]] contemplation. This approach was taken by the Jewish scholar and philosopher [[Maimonides]] and the other medieval rationalists; it became popular in Jewish, Christian and Islamic intellectual circles, but never became the most popular understanding of prayer among the laity in any of these faiths. In all three of these faiths today, a significant minority of people still hold to this approach.
===Experiential approach===
In this approach, the purpose of prayer is to enable the person praying to gain a direct [[experience]] of the recipient of the prayer (or as close to direct as a specific theology permits). This approach is very significant in [[Christianity]] and widespread in [[Judaism]] (although less popular theologically). In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], this approach is known as [[hesychasm]]. It is also widespread in [[Sufi]] Islam, and in some forms of [[mysticism]]. It has some similarities with the rationalist approach, since it can also involve [[contemplation]], although the contemplation is not generally viewed as being as rational or intellectual.
==Prayer Groups==
A prayer group is a group of people that meet to pray together. These groups, formed mostly within Christian congregations but occasionally among Muslim groups as well,[http://islamicprayergroup.com] gather outside of the congregation's regular worship service to pray for perceived needs, sometimes within the congregation, sometimes within their religious group at large. However, these groups often pray also for the world around them, including people who do not share their [[belief]]s.
Although there is no [[universal]]ly held method for conducting a prayer group meeting, a meeting's program will often begin with every participant proclaiming the [[authority]] of [[God]], then sharing their own [[personal]] needs to other members of the group. Those needs are then prayed for, followed by the known needs of members of the congregation who are not taking part in the meeting. Needs outside the congregation are then prayed for.
Many prayer group meetings are held according to a regular schedule, usually once a week. However, extraordinary events, such as the [http://www.worldwideprayergroup.org September 11 attacks] or major disasters spawned a number of improvised prayer group meetings. Prayer groups do not need to meet in person, and there are a vast array of single-purpose prayer groups in the world.[http://www.facebook.com/directory/groups/P684819-685150]
==Prayer healing==
Prayer is often used as a means of [[faith]] [[healing]] in an attempt to use religious or [[spiritual]] means to prevent illness, cure disease, or improve health. Those who attempt to heal by prayer, mental practices, spiritual [[insight]]s, or other techniques claim they can summon [[divine]] or supernatural intervention on behalf of the ill. According to the varied beliefs of those who practice it, faith healing may be said to afford gradual relief from pain or sickness or to bring about a sudden "miracle cure", and it may be used in place of, or in tandem with, conventional medical techniques for alleviating or curing diseases. Faith healing has been criticized on the grounds that those who use it may delay seeking potentially curative conventional medical care. This is particularly problematic when parents use faith healing techniques on children.
===Efficacy of prayer healing===
In 1872, [[Francis Galton]] conducted a famous [[statistics|statistical]] [[experiment]] to determine whether prayer had a physical effect on the external environment. Galton hypothesized that if prayer was effective, members of the British Royal family would live longer, given that thousands prayed for their wellbeing every Sunday. He therefore compared longevity in the British Royal family with that of the general population, and found no difference. While the experiment was probably intended to satirize, and suffered from a number of confounders, it set the precedent for a number of different studies, the results of which are contradictory.
Two studies claimed that patients who are being prayed for recover more quickly or more frequently although critics have claimed that the methodology of such studies are flawed, and the perceived effect disappears when controls are tightened.[http://skeptico.blogs.com/skeptico/2005/07/prayer_still_us.html] One such study, with a double-blind design and about 500 subjects per group, suggested that intercessory prayer by born again Christians had a statistically significant positive effect on a coronary care unit population. Critics contend that there were severe methodological problems with this study. Another such study was reported by Harris ''et al'' Critics also claim Byrd's 1988 study was not fully double-blinded, and that in the Harris study, patients actually had a longer hospital stay in the prayer group, if one discounts the patients in both groups who left before prayers began, although the Harris study did demonstrate the prayed for patients on average received lower course scores (indicating better recovery).
One of the largest randomized, blind clinical trials was a remote ''retroactive'' intercessory prayer study conducted in Israel by Leibovici. This study used 3393 patient records from 1990-96, and blindly assigned some of these to an intercessory prayer group. The prayer group had shorter hospital stays and duration of fever.
Many believe that prayer can aid in recovery, not due to divine influence but due to psychological and physical benefits. It has also been suggested that if a person knows that he or she is being prayed for it can be uplifting and increase morale, thus aiding recovery. (See [[Subject-expectancy effect]].) Many studies have suggested that prayer can reduce physical stress, regardless of the god or gods a person prays to, and this may be true for many worldly reasons. According to a study by Centra State Hospital, "the psychological benefits of prayer may help reduce stress and anxiety, promote a more positive outlook, and strengthen the will to live." [http://www.centrastate.com/body.cfm?id=520&action=detail&articlepath=/Atoz/dc/cen/canc/gen/mindspirit.html#7 Mind and Spirit]. ''from the Health Library section of'' [http://www.centrastate.com CentraState Healthcare System]. Other practices such as [[Yoga]], [[Tai Chi]], and [[Meditation]] may also have a positive impact on physical and psychological health.
Others feel that the [[concept]] of conducting prayer experiments reflects a misunderstanding of the purpose of prayer. The previously mentioned American Heart Journal study published in the American Heart Journal indicated that some of the intercessors who took part in it complained about the scripted nature of the prayers that were imposed to them, saying that this is not the way they usually conduct prayer:
==See Also==
* [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_91 Paper 91 - The Evolution of Prayer]
==Quote==
"Prayer is entirely a [[personal]] and spontaneous expression of the attitude of the [[soul]] toward the spirit; prayer should be the [[communion]] of love and the expression of fellowship. Prayer, when indited by the [[spirit]], leads to co-operative spiritual progress. The [[ideal]] prayer is a form of spiritual communion which leads to intelligent [[worship]]. True praying is the sincere attitude of reaching heavenward for the attainment of your ideals."[http://mercy.urantia.org/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper144.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper144.html&line=51#mfs]
==References and footnotes==
# Clowney, Edmond (1988). Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David. eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 526–527. ISBN 0851106366.
# Galton F. Statistical inquiries into the efficacy of prayer. Fortnightly Review 1872;68:125-35. Online version.
# Byrd RC, Positive therapeutic effects of intercessory prayer in a coronary care unit population. South Med J 1988;81:826-9. PMID 3393937.
# Harris WS, Gowda M, Kolb JW, Strychacz CP, Vacek JL, Jones PG, Forker A, O'Keefe JH, McCallister BD. A randomized, controlled trial of the effects of remote, intercessory prayer on outcomes in patients admitted to the coronary care unit. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2273-8. PMID 10547166.
# O'Laoire S. An experimental study of the effects of distant, intercessory prayer on self-esteem, anxiety, and depression. Altern Ther Health Med 1997;3:38-53. PMID 9375429.
# Benson H, Dusek JA et al. "Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: a multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer." American Heart Journal. 2006 April; 151(4): p. 762-4.
# http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gary_posner/godccu.html A critique of the San Francisco hospital study on intercessory prayer and healing - Gary P. Posner, M.D.
# "Online Etymology Dictionary" (HTML). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=p&p=27].
# "Online Etymology Dictionary" (HTML). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=o&p=7]
# Sidwell, Melanie M. (8-15-2008). "Dance as prayer" (HTML). Longmont Times-Call. [http://www.timescall.com/faith/Faith-Story.asp?id=10650].
# "The Whirling Dervishes of Rumi" (HTML). [http://www.whirlingdervishes.org/whirlingdervishes.htm].
# Omkarananda, Swami (11-12-2008). "How to pray" (HTML). Omkarananda Ashram Himalayas. [http://www.omkarananda-ashram.org/Publications/how_to_pray.htm].
# "Jewish Worship and Prayer" (HTML). Religion Facts. [http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/practices/worship_prayer.htm]. This practice is known, in Yiddish, as shuckling.
# Avery, Chel. "Quaker Worship" (HTML). Quaker Information Center. [http://www.quakerinfo.org/quakerism/worship.html].
# Stephens, Ferris J. (1950). Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Princeton. pp. 391–2.
# Zaleski, Carol; Zaleski, Philip (2006). Prayer: A History. Boston: Mariner Books. pp. 24–25. ISBN 0-618-77360-6.
# Erickson, Millard J. (1998). Christian theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. ISBN 0-8010-2182-0.
# Knight, Kevin. "Prayer" (HTML). New Advent. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12345b.htm].
# See, for example, James 5:14
# Scheckel, Roger J. (January 2004). "The Angelus" (HTML). The Marian Catechists. [http://www.mariancatechist.com/html/spiritualdevelopment/prayer/sanctifyingyourdaywiththeangelus.htm].
# "Buddhist Art" (HTML). Pacific Asia Museum. 2003. [http://www.pacificasiamuseum.org/buddhism/html/essay4.htm]. Retrieved on 2008-10-06.
# See, for example, McCarty, Julie (2008). "Faith - Grandma's prayer candle" (HTML). Bayard Inc.. [http://www.catholicdigest.com/article/grandmas-prayer-candle].
# Emerick, Yahiya (2002). [www.idiotsguides.com The Complete Idiot's Guide to Islam]. Indianapolis IN: Alpha Books. pp. 127–128. ISBN 0-02-864233-3.
# Rayor, Diane. "The Homeric Hymns" (HTML). University of California Press. [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9232/9232.intro.ph.
# "Religio Romana" (HTML). Nova Roma. [http://www.novaroma.org/religio_romana/posture.html].
# Frederic De Forest Allen, Remnants of Early Latin (Boston: Ginn & Heath 1880 and Ginn & Co 1907).
# Cato's Mars Prayer, found in De Agri Cultura, translated at[1]
# Translation by Bellows.
# Grundy, Stephan (1998). "Freyja and Frigg" as collected in Billington, Sandra. The Concept of the Goddess, page 60. Routledge ISBN 0415197899
# Hollander, Lee (trans.) (1955). The saga of the Jómsvíkings, page 100. University of Texas Press ISBN 0292776233
# Gordon, R.K. (1962). Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Everyman's Library #794. M. Dent & Sons, LTD.
# Lambdin, Laura C and Robert T. (2000). Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature, page 227. Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 0313300542
# Wells, C. J." (1985). German, a Linguistic History to 1945: A Linguistic History to 1945, page 51. Oxford University Press ISBN 0198157959
# See John 16:23, 26; John 14:13; John 15:16
# Catholic Encyclopedia [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12775a.htm]
# Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed, 1989
# "Christianity - Pentecostalism" (HTML). Australian Broadcasting Company. [http://www.abc.net.au/religion/stories/s820631.htm].
# Acts 2:1-13 31
# George Barton Cutten, Speaking with Tongues Historically and Psychologically Considered, Yale University Press, 1927.
# Goodman, Felicitas D., Speaking in Tongues: A Cross-Cultural Study in Glossolalia. University of Chicago Press, 1972.
# Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–226: quote on p211
# Samarin, William J., Tongues of Men and Angels: The Religious Language of Pentecostalism. Macmillan, New York, 1972, quote on p73
# Hine, Virginia H.: 'Pentecostal Glossolalia toward a Functional Interpretation.' Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8, 2: (1969) 211–226: quote on p213
# Spanos, Nicholas P.; Hewitt, Erin C.: Glossolalia: 'A test of the 'trance' and psychopathology hypotheses.' Journal of Abnormal Psychology: 1979 Aug Vol 88(4) 427-434.
# "Is there no intercessory prayer?". [http://www.christianscience.org/QAIsthereintercesprayer.html].
# Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 274–275. ISBN 1851681841.
# See for example [http://www.centreguephel.org/prieres.html] (French)
# Collins, Steven (1982). Selfless Persons. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 6. ISBN 0-521-39726.
# Sangharakshita, Bhikshu (1993). A Survey of Buddhism. Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom: Windhorse Publications. pp. 449–460. ISBN 0904766659
# Keown, Damien (ed.) with Hodge, Stephen; Jones, Charles; Tinti, Paola (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. Great Britain, Oxford: Oxford University Press. P.100. ISBN 0-19-860560-9
# "Animism Profile in Cambodia". OMF. [http://www.omf.org/omf/cambodia/about_cambodia/animism_profile].
# "Prayer stick". Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
# Elkin, Adolphus P. (1973). Aboriginal Men of High Degree: Initiation and Sorcery in the World's Oldest Tradition. Inner Traditions - Bear & Company.
# Greenberg, Moshe. Biblical Prose Prayer: As a Window to the Popular Religion of Ancient Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1983 [http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8b69p1w7/]
# Bounds, Edward McKendree (1907). The Necessity of Prayer. AGES Software.
# "Islamicprayergroup.com". 2008. [http://islamicprayergroup.com].
# [www.worldwideprayergroup.org "World Wide Prayer Group"] (HTML).
# [www.facebook.com/directory/groups/P684819-685150 "Prayer Group - Prayer Meeting Praise Team"]
# [http://skeptico.blogs.com/skeptico/2005/07/prayer_still_us.html Prayer still useless]
# Tessman I and Tessman J "Efficacy of Prayer: A Critical Examination of Claims," Skeptical Inquirer, March/April 2000,
# Leibovici L. Effects of remote, retroactive intercessory prayer on outcomes in patients with bloodstream infection: randomized controlled trial. BMJ 2001;323:1450-1. PMID 11751349.
# Aviles JM, Whelan SE, Hernke DA, Williams BA, Kenny KE, O'Fallon WM, Kopecky SL. Intercessory prayer and cardiovascular disease progression in a coronary care unit population: a randomized controlled trial. Mayo Clin Proc 2001;76:1192-8. PMID 11761499.
# Krucoff MW, Crater SW, Gallup D, Blankenship JC, Cuffe M, Guarneri M, Krieger RA, Kshettry VR, Morris K, Oz M, Pichard A, Sketch MH Jr, Koenig HG, Mark D, Lee KL. Music, imagery, touch, and prayer as adjuncts to interventional cardiac care: the Monitoring and Actualisation of Noetic Trainings (MANTRA) II randomised study. Lancet 2005;366:211-7. PMID 16023511.
# Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: A multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer[2]
# The Deity in the DataWhat the latest prayer study tells us about God.[3]
# Herbert Benson et al., "Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: A multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer", American Heart Journal, Volume 151, No 4, 934-42 (2006)
# Mind and Spirit. from the Health Library section of CentraState Healthcare System. Accessed May 18, 2006.
==External links==
* [http://www.prayerinamerica.org/ PBS Documentary on Prayer in America]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/03/23/AR2006032302177.html/ Scientific study of effect of prayer on recovery of patients]
[[Category: Religion]]
