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'''Creativity''' (or "creativeness") is a mental process involving the generation of new [[idea]]s or [[concepts]], or new associations of the creative mind between existing ideas or concepts.

'''Creativity''' or "creativeness" is a mental process involving the generation of new ideas or concepts, or new associations of the creative mind between existing ideas or concepts.

From a scientific point of view, the products of creative thought (sometimes referred to as [[convergent and divergent production|divergent thought]]) are usually considered to have both originality ''and'' appropriateness. An alternative, more everyday conception of creativity is that it is simply the act of making something new.  

From a scientific point of view, the products of creative thought (sometimes referred to as convergent and divergent thought) are usually considered to have both originality ''and'' appropriateness. An alternative, more everyday conception of creativity is that it is simply the act of making something new.  

Although intuitively a simple phenomenon, it is in fact quite complex. It has been studied from the perspectives of [[behavioural psychology]], [[social psychology]], [[psychometrics]], [[cognitive science]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[philosophy]], [[history]], [[economics]], [[design research]], [[business]], and [[management]], among others. The studies have covered everyday creativity, exceptional creativity and even [[Artificial Creativity|artificial creativity]]. Unlike many phenomena in science, there is no single, authoritative perspective or definition of creativity. And unlike many phenomena in psychology, there is no standardized measurement technique.  

Although intuitively a simple phenomenon, it is in fact quite complex. It has been studied from the perspectives of [[behavioural psychology]], [[social psychology]], [[psychometrics]], [[cognitive science]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[philosophy]], [[history]], [[economics]], [[design research]], [[business]], and [[management]], among others. The studies have covered everyday creativity, exceptional creativity and even [[Artificial Creativity|artificial creativity]]. Unlike many phenomena in science, there is no single, authoritative perspective or definition of creativity. And unlike many phenomena in psychology, there is no standardized measurement technique.  

Creativity has been attributed variously to [[divine intervention]], [[cognitive]] processes, the [[social]] environment, [[trait theory|personality traits]], and [[Randomness|chance]] ("accident", "[[serendipity]]"). It has been associated with [[genius]], [[mental illness]] and [[humour]]. Some say it is a [[trait (biological)|trait]] we are born with; others say it can be taught with the application of [[creativity techniques|simple techniques]].  

Creativity has been attributed variously to [[divine intervention]], [[cognitive]] processes, the [[social]] environment, [[personality]] traits, and [[chance]] ("accident", "[[serendipity]]"). It has been associated with [[genius]], [[mental illness]] and humour. Some say it is a biological trait we are born with; others say it can be taught with the application of simple techniques.  

==Definitions of creativity==

==Definitions of creativity==

Although popularly associated with [[art]] and [[literature]], it is also an essential part of [[innovation]] and [[invention]] and is important in professions such as [[business]], [[economics]], [[architecture]], [[industrial design]], [[science]] and [[engineering]].  

Although popularly associated with [[art]] and [[literature]], it is also an essential part of innovation and invention and is important in professions such as [[economics]], [[architecture]], [[science]] and [[engineering]].  

Despite, or perhaps because of, the ambiguity and multi-dimensional nature of creativity, entire [[creative industries|industries]] have been spawned from the pursuit of creative ideas and the development of [[creativity techniques]].More than 60 different definitions of creativity can be found in the psychological literature,<ref>(Taylor, 1988)</ref> and it is beyond the scope of this article to list them all.   

Despite, or perhaps because of, the ambiguity and multi-dimensional nature of creativity, entire [[creative industries|industries]] have been spawned from the pursuit of creative ideas and the development of creativity techniques.More than 60 different definitions of creativity can be found in the psychological literature, and it is beyond the scope of this article to list them all.   

The [[etymology|etymological]] root of the word in [[English language|English]] and most other European [[language]]s comes from the [[Latin]] ''creatus'', literally "to have grown."

The [[etymology|etymological]] root of the word in [[English language|English]] and most other European [[language]]s comes from the [[Latin]] ''creatus'', literally "to have grown."

Often implied in the notion of creativity is a concomitant presence of inspiration, cognitive leaps, or [[Intuition (knowledge)|intuitive]] [[insight]] as a part of creative thought and action.<ref name="Koestler64">(Koestler, 1964)</ref>

Often implied in the notion of creativity is a concomitant presence of inspiration, cognitive leaps, or [[Intuition (knowledge)|intuitive]] [[insight]] as a part of creative thought and action.<ref name="Koestler64">(Koestler, 1964)</ref>

[[Pop psychology]] sometimes associates creativity with [[cerebral hemisphere|right or forehead brain activity]] or even specifically with [[lateral thinking]].

Pop psychology sometimes associates creativity with hemispheric brain activity or even specifically with [[lateral thinking]].

Some students of creativity have emphasized an element of [[Randomness|chance]] in the creative process.  [[Linus Pauling]], asked at a public lecture how one creates [[theory|scientific theories]], replied that one must endeavor to come up with ''many'' ideas — then discard the useless ones.

Some students of creativity have emphasized an element of [[Randomness|chance]] in the creative process.  [[Linus Pauling]], asked at a public lecture how one creates [[theory|scientific theories]], replied that one must endeavor to come up with ''many'' ideas — then discard the useless ones.

Another adequate definition of creativity is that it is an "Assumptions breaking process". Many creative ideas are generated when somebody discards preconceived assumptions and decides on a new approach or method that might seem to others unthinkable.

Another adequate definition of creativity is that it is an "assumptions breaking process". Many creative ideas are generated when somebody discards preconceived assumptions and decides on a new approach or method that might seem to others unthinkable.

==Distinguishing between creativity and innovation==

==Distinguishing between creativity and innovation==

The ancient Greeks, who believed that the [[muse]]s were the source of all inspiration, actually had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator."  The expression "''poiein''" ("to make") sufficed. The sole exception was [[poetry]]: the poet was seen as making new things — bringing to life a new world — while the [[art]]ist merely ''imitated''.  

The ancient Greeks, who believed that the [[muse]]s were the source of all inspiration, actually had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator."  The expression "''poiein''" ("to make") sufficed. The sole exception was [[poetry]]: the poet was seen as making new things — bringing to life a new world — while the [[art]]ist merely ''imitated''.  

In Rome, this Greek view was modified, and [[Horace]] wrote that not only poets but painters were entitled to the privilege of daring whatever they wished. Unlike [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]] had a term for "creating" ("''creatio''") and for "creator", and had two expressions for "to make" — "''facere''" and "''creare''".<ref name="Tatarkiewicz80">(Tatarkiewicz, 1980)</ref>

In Rome, this Greek view was modified, and [[Horace]] wrote that not only poets but painters were entitled to the privilege of daring whatever they wished. Unlike Greek, Latin had a term for "creating" ("''creatio''") and for "creator", and had two expressions for "to make" — "''facere''" and "''creare''".

Although neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any words that directly corresponded to the word creativity, their art, architecture, music, inventions, and discoveries provide numerous examples of what we would today describe as creative works. At the time, the concept of [[genius]] probably came closest to describing the creative talents bringing forth these works.<ref name="Albert99">(Albert & Runco, 1999)</ref>

Although neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any words that directly corresponded to the word creativity, their art, architecture, music, inventions, and discoveries provide numerous examples of what we would today describe as creative works. At the time, the concept of [[genius]] probably came closest to describing the creative talents bringing forth these works.

A fundamental change came in the [[Christianity|Christian]] period:  "''creatio''" came to designate God's act of "creation from nothing". "''Creatio''" thus took on a different meaning than "''facere''" ("to make"), and ceased to apply to human functions. The ancient view that art is not a domain of creativity persisted in this period.<ref name="Tatarkiewicz80"/>

A fundamental change came in the Christian period:  "''creatio''" came to designate God's act of "creation from nothing". "''Creatio''" thus took on a different meaning than "''facere''" ("to make"), and ceased to apply to human functions. The ancient view that art is not a domain of creativity persisted in this period.

Another shift occurred in more modern times. [[Renaissance]] men had a sense of their own independence, freedom and creativity, and sought to give voice to this sense of independence and creativity. [[Baltasar Gracián]] (1601&ndash;1658) wrote:  "Art is the completion of nature, as if it were ''a second Creator''...".  

Another shift occurred in more modern times. [[Renaissance]] men had a sense of their own independence, freedom and creativity, and sought to give voice to this sense of independence and creativity. [[Baltasar Gracián]] (1601-1658) wrote:  "Art is the completion of nature, as if it were ''a second Creator''...".  

By the 18th century and the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of creativity was appearing more often in art theory, and was linked with the concept of [[imagination]].<ref name="Tatarkiewicz80"/>

By the 18th century and the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of creativity was appearing more often in art theory, and was linked with the concept of [[imagination]].

The Western view of creativity can be contrasted with the Eastern view. For the [[Hinduism|Hindus]], [[Confucianism|Confucius]], [[Taoism|Taoists]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], creation was at most a kind of discovery or mimicry, and the idea of creation from "nothing" had no place in these philosophies and religions.<ref name="Albert99"/>

The Western view of creativity can be contrasted with the Eastern view. For the [[Hinduism|Hindus]], [[Confucianism|Confucius]], [[Taoism|Taoists]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], creation was at most a kind of discovery or mimicry, and the idea of creation from "nothing" had no place in these philosophies and religions.

In the 19th century, not only was art regarded as creativity, but ''it alone'' was so regarded.  When later, at the turn of the 20th century, there began to be discussion of creativity in the sciences (e.g., [[Jan Łukasiewicz]], 1878&ndash;1956) and in nature (e.g., [[Henri Bergson]]), this was generally taken as the transference to the sciences of concepts proper to art.<ref name="Tatarkiewicz80"/>

In the 19th century, not only was art regarded as creativity, but ''it alone'' was so regarded.  When later, at the turn of the 20th century, there began to be discussion of creativity in the sciences and in nature (e.g., [[Henri Bergson]]), this was generally taken as the transference to the sciences of concepts proper to art.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, leading mathematicians and scientists such as [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] (1896) and [[Henri Poincaré]] (1908) had begun to reflect on and publicly discuss their creative processes, and these insights were built on in early accounts of the creative process by pioneering theorists such as [[Graham Wallas]] (1926) and [[Max Wertheimer]] (1945).  

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, leading mathematicians and scientists such as [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] (1896) and [[Henri Poincaré]] (1908) had begun to reflect on and publicly discuss their creative processes, and these insights were built on in early accounts of the creative process by pioneering theorists such as [[Graham Wallas]] (1926) and [[Max Wertheimer]] (1945).  

However, the formal starting point for the scientific study of creativity, from the standpoint of  orthodox [[psychological]] literature, is generally considered to have been [[J. P. Guilford]]'s 1950 address to the [[American Psychological Association]], which helped popularize the topic<ref name="Sternberg99">(Sternberg, 1999)</ref> and focus on a scientific approach to conceptualising creativity and measuring it by means such as [[psychometric]] testing.  

However, the formal starting point for the scientific study of creativity, from the standpoint of  orthodox [[psychological]] literature, is generally considered to have been [[J. P. Guilford]]'s 1950 address to the [[American Psychological Association]], which helped popularize the topicand focus on a scientific approach to conceptualising creativity and measuring it by means such as [[psychometric]] testing.  

In parallel with these developments, others have taken a more pragmatic approach, teaching practical [[creativity techniques]]. Three of the best-known are :

In parallel with these developments, others have taken a more pragmatic approach, teaching practical [[creativity techniques]]. Three of the best-known are :

:(v) ''verification'' (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied).   

:(v) ''verification'' (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied).   

In numerous publications, Wallas' model is just treated as four stages, with "intimation" seen as a sub-stage. There has been some empirical research looking at whether, as the concept of "incubation" in Wallas' model implies, a period of interruption or rest from a problem may aid creative problem-solving. Ward<ref>(Ward, 2003)</ref> lists various hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid creative problem-solving, and notes how some empirical evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that incubation aids creative problem-solving in that it enables "forgetting" of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become [[fixation|fixated]] on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem.<ref>(Smith, 1981)</ref> This work disputes the earlier hypothesis that creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the unconscious mind while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks.<ref>(Anderson, 2000)</ref>

In numerous publications, Wallas' model is just treated as four stages, with "intimation" seen as a sub-stage. There has been some empirical research looking at whether, as the concept of "incubation" in Wallas' model implies, a period of interruption or rest from a problem may aid creative problem-solving. Ward  

lists various hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid creative problem-solving, and notes how some empirical evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that incubation aids creative problem-solving in that it enables "forgetting" of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become [[fixation|fixated]] on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem. This work disputes the earlier hypothesis that creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the unconscious mind while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks.

Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the [[evolution]]ary process, which allowed humans to quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton<ref name="Simonton99">(Simonton, 1999)</ref> provides an updated perspective on this view in his book, ''Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity''.

Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the [[evolution]]ary process, which allowed humans to quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton provides an updated perspective on this view in his book, ''Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity''.

====J.P. Guilford====

====J.P. Guilford====

[[J. P. Guilford|Guilford]]<ref name="Guildford67">(Guilford, 1967)</ref> performed important work in the field of creativity, drawing a distinction between [[convergent and divergent production]] (commonly renamed convergent and divergent thinking). Convergent thinking involves aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation of multiple answers to a set problem. Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychology literature. Other researchers have occasionally used the terms ''flexible'' thinking or [[Fluid and crystallized intelligence|fluid intelligence]], which are roughly similar to (but not synonymous with) creativity.

[[J. P. Guilford|Guilford]] performed important work in the field of creativity, drawing a distinction between [[convergent and divergent production]] (commonly renamed convergent and divergent thinking). Convergent thinking involves aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation of multiple answers to a set problem. Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychology literature. Other researchers have occasionally used the terms ''flexible'' thinking or [[Fluid and crystallized intelligence|fluid intelligence]], which are roughly similar to (but not synonymous with) creativity.

====Arthur Koestler====

====Arthur Koestler====

In ''The Act of Creation'', [[Arthur Koestler]]<ref name="Koestler64"/> lists three types of creative individual - the ''Artist'', the ''Sage'' and the ''Jester''.  

In ''The Act of Creation'', [[Arthur Koestler]] lists three types of creative individual - the ''Artist'', the ''Sage'' and the ''Jester''.  

Believers in this trinity hold all three elements necessary in [[business]] and can identify them all in "truly creative" [[Company (law)|companies]] as well. Koestler introduced the concept of ''bisociation'' - that creativity arises as a result of the intersection of two quite different frames of reference.

Believers in this trinity hold all three elements necessary in [[business]] and can identify them all in "truly creative" [[Company (law)|companies]] as well. Koestler introduced the concept of ''bisociation'' - that creativity arises as a result of the intersection of two quite different frames of reference.

==== Geneplore model====

==== Geneplore model====

In 1992 Finke et al. proposed the 'Geneplore' model, in which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called preinventive structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas. Weisberg<ref>(Weisberg, 1993)</ref> argued, by contrast, that creativity only involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordinary results.  

In 1992 Finke et al. proposed the 'Geneplore' model, in which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called preinventive structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas. Weisberg argued, by contrast, that creativity only involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordinary results.  

====Conceptual blending====

====Conceptual blending====

[[Jacques Hadamard]], in his book ''Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field'', uses [[introspection]] to describe mathematical thought processes. In contrast to authors who identify [[language]] and [[cognition]], he describes his own mathematical thinking as largely wordless, often accompanied by [[mental images]] that represent the entire solution to a problem. He surveyed 100 of the leading physicists of his day (ca. 1900), asking them how they did their work. Many of the responses mirrored his own.

[[Jacques Hadamard]], in his book ''Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field'', uses [[introspection]] to describe mathematical thought processes. In contrast to authors who identify [[language]] and [[cognition]], he describes his own mathematical thinking as largely wordless, often accompanied by [[mental images]] that represent the entire solution to a problem. He surveyed 100 of the leading physicists of his day (ca. 1900), asking them how they did their work. Many of the responses mirrored his own.

Hadamard described the experiences of the [[mathematician]]s/[[theoretical physicist]]s [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], [[Henri Poincaré]] and others as viewing entire solutions with “sudden spontaneity.”<ref> Hadamard, 1954, pp. 13-16.</ref>

Hadamard described the experiences of the [[mathematician]]s/[[theoretical physicist]]s [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], [[Henri Poincaré]] and others as viewing entire solutions with “sudden spontaneity.”

The same has been reported in literature by many others, such as Denis Brian,<ref> Brian, 1996, p. 159.</ref> [[G. H. Hardy]],<ref>G. H. Hardy cited how the mathematician [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] had “moments of sudden illumination.”  See Kanigel, 1992, pp. 285-286.</ref>, [[Walter Heitler]],<ref>Interview with Walter Heitler by John Heilbron (March 18, 1963. Archives for the History of Quantum Physics), as cited in and quoted from in Gavroglu, Kostas ''[[Fritz London]]: A Scientific Biography'' p. 45 (Cambridge, 2005).</ref> [[B. L. van der Waerden]],<ref>von Franz, 1992, p. 297 and 314. Cited work: B. L. van der Waerden, ''Einfall und Überlegung: Drei kleine Beiträge zur Psychologie des mathematischen Denkens'' (Gasel & Stuttgart, 1954).</ref> and Harold Ruegg.<ref>von Franz, 1992, p. 297 and 314. Cited work:  Harold Ruegg, ''Imagination: An Inquiry into the Sources and Conditions That Stimulate Creativity'' (New York: Harper, 1954).</ref>

The same has been reported in literature by many others, such as Denis Brian,  [[G. H. Hardy]],<ref>G. H. Hardy cited how the mathematician [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] had “moments of sudden illumination.”  Archives for the History of Quantum Physics), as cited in and quoted from in Gavroglu, Kostas ''[[Fritz London]]: A Scientific Biography'' p. 45 (Cambridge, 2005).</ref> [[B. L. van der Waerden]],<ref>von Franz, 1992, p. 297 and 314. Cited work: B. L. van der Waerden, ''Einfall und Überlegung: Drei kleine Beiträge zur Psychologie des mathematischen Denkens'' (Gasel & Stuttgart, 1954).</ref> and Harold Ruegg.<ref>von Franz, 1992, p. 297 and 314. Cited work:  Harold Ruegg, ''Imagination: An Inquiry into the Sources and Conditions That Stimulate Creativity'' (New York: Harper, 1954).</ref>

To elaborate on one example, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], after years of fruitless calculations, suddenly had the solution to the general theory of relativity revealed in a dream “like a giant die making an indelible impress, a huge map of the universe outlined itself in one clear vision.” <ref> Brian, 1996, p. 159.</ref>

To elaborate on one example, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], after years of fruitless calculations, suddenly had the solution to the general theory of relativity revealed in a dream “like a giant die making an indelible impress, a huge map of the universe outlined itself in one clear vision.” <ref> Brian, 1996, p. 159.</ref>

====Marie-Louise von Franz====

====Marie-Louise von Franz====

[[Marie-Louise von Franz]], a colleague of the eminent psychiatrist [[Carl Jung]], noted that in these unconscious scientific discoveries the “always recurring and important factor … is the simultaneity with which the complete solution is intuitively perceived and which can be checked later by discursive reasoning.”  She attributes the solution presented “as an [[archetypal]] pattern or image.”<ref> von Franz, 1992, pp. 297-298.</ref> As cited by von Franz,<ref>von Franz, 1992 297-298 and 314.</ref> according to Jung, “Archetypes … manifest themselves only through their ability to ''organize'' images and ideas, and this is always an unconscious process which cannot be detected until afterwards.”<ref>Jung, 1981, paragraph 440, p. 231.</ref>

[[Marie-Louise von Franz]], a colleague of the eminent psychiatrist [[Carl Jung]], noted that in these unconscious scientific discoveries the “always recurring and important factor … is the simultaneity with which the complete solution is intuitively perceived and which can be checked later by discursive reasoning.”  She attributes the solution presented “as an [[archetypal]] pattern or image.”  As cited by von Franz, according to Jung, “Archetypes … manifest themselves only through their ability to ''organize'' images and ideas, and this is always an unconscious process which cannot be detected until afterwards.”

==Creativity and affect==

==Creativity and affect==

There has been debate in the psychological literature about whether [[intelligence]] and creativity are part of the same process (the conjoint hypothesis) or represent distinct mental processes (the disjoint hypothesis). Evidence from attempts to look at correlations between intelligence and creativity from the 1950s onwards, by authors such as Barron, Guilford or Wallach and Kogan, regularly suggested that correlations between these concepts were low enough to justify treating them as distinct concepts.  

There has been debate in the psychological literature about whether [[intelligence]] and creativity are part of the same process (the conjoint hypothesis) or represent distinct mental processes (the disjoint hypothesis). Evidence from attempts to look at correlations between intelligence and creativity from the 1950s onwards, by authors such as Barron, Guilford or Wallach and Kogan, regularly suggested that correlations between these concepts were low enough to justify treating them as distinct concepts.  

Some researchers believe that creativity is the outcome of the same cognitive processes as intelligence, and is only judged as creativity in terms of its consequences, i.e. when the outcome of cognitive processes happens to produce something novel, a view which Perkins has termed the "nothing special" hypothesis.<ref name="OHara99">(O'Hara & Sternberg, 1999)</ref>

Some researchers believe that creativity is the outcome of the same cognitive processes as intelligence, and is only judged as creativity in terms of its consequences, i.e. when the outcome of cognitive processes happens to produce something novel, a view which Perkins has termed the "nothing special" hypothesis.

A very popular model is what has come to be known as "the threshold hypothesis", proposed by [[Ellis Paul Torrance]], which holds that a high degree of intelligence appears to be a [[necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary but not sufficient condition]] for high creativity.<ref name="Guildford67"/> This means that, in a general sample, there will be a positive [[correlation]] between creativity and intelligence, but this correlation will not be found if only a sample of the most highly intelligent people are assessed. Research into the threshold hypothesis, however, has produced mixed results ranging from enthusiastic support to refutation and rejection.<ref>(Plucker & Renzulli, 1999)</ref>

A very popular model is what has come to be known as "the threshold hypothesis", proposed by [[Ellis Paul Torrance]], which holds that a high degree of intelligence appears to be a [[necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary but not sufficient condition]] for high creativity. This means that, in a general sample, there will be a positive [[correlation]] between creativity and intelligence, but this correlation will not be found if only a sample of the most highly intelligent people are assessed. Research into the threshold hypothesis, however, has produced mixed results ranging from enthusiastic support to refutation and rejection.

An alternative perspective, Renzulli's three-rings hypothesis, sees giftedness as based on both intelligence and creativity. More on both the threshold hypothesis and Renzulli's work can be found in O'Hara and Sternberg.<ref name="OHara99"/>

An alternative perspective, Renzulli's three-rings hypothesis, sees giftedness as based on both intelligence and creativity. More on both the threshold hypothesis and Renzulli's work can be found in O'Hara and Sternberg.

==Neurobiology of creativity==

==Neurobiology of creativity==

The [[neurobiology]] of creativity has been addressed <ref name="NeuroPsychiatry">(Kenneth M Heilman, MD, Stephen E. Nadeau, MD, and David O. Beversdorf, MD. "Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms" Neurocase (2003)</ref> in the article "Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms." The authors write that "creative innovation might require coactivation and communication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are not strongly connected". Highly creative people who excel at creative innovation tend to differ from others in three ways:  

The [[neurobiology]] of creativity has been addressed in the article "Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms." The authors write that "creative innovation might require coactivation and communication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are not strongly connected". Highly creative people who excel at creative innovation tend to differ from others in three ways:  

* they have a high level of specialized knowledge,  

* they have a high level of specialized knowledge,  

*they are capable of [[convergent and divergent production|divergent thinking]] mediated by the [[frontal lobe]],  

*they are capable of [[convergent and divergent production|divergent thinking]] mediated by the [[frontal lobe]],  

This article also explored the links between creativity and sleep, [[Mood disorder|mood]] and [[Addiction|addiction disorders]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]].

This article also explored the links between creativity and sleep, [[Mood disorder|mood]] and [[Addiction|addiction disorders]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]].

In 2005, Alice Flaherty presented a three-factor model of the creative drive. Drawing from evidence in brain imaging, drug studies and lesion analysis, she described the creative drive as resulting from an interaction of the frontal lobes, the [[temporal lobe]]s, and [[dopamine]] from the [[limbic system]]. The frontal lobes can be seen as responsible for idea generation, and the temporal lobes for idea editing and evaluation.  Abnormalities in the frontal lobe (such as depression or anxiety) generally decrease creativity, while abnormalities in the temporal lobe often increase creativity. High activity in the temporal lobe typically inhibits activity in the frontal lobe, and vice versa. High dopamine levels increase general [[arousal]] and goal directed behaviors and reduce [[latent inhibition]], and all three effects increase the drive to generate ideas.<ref>(Flaherty, 2005)</ref>

In 2005, Alice Flaherty presented a three-factor model of the creative drive. Drawing from evidence in brain imaging, drug studies and lesion analysis, she described the creative drive as resulting from an interaction of the frontal lobes, the [[temporal lobe]]s, and [[dopamine]] from the [[limbic system]]. The frontal lobes can be seen as responsible for idea generation, and the temporal lobes for idea editing and evaluation.  Abnormalities in the frontal lobe (such as depression or anxiety) generally decrease creativity, while abnormalities in the temporal lobe often increase creativity. High activity in the temporal lobe typically inhibits activity in the frontal lobe, and vice versa. High dopamine levels increase general [[arousal]] and goal directed behaviors and reduce [[latent inhibition]], and all three effects increase the drive to generate ideas.

===Working memory and the cerebellum===

===Working memory and the cerebellum===

Vandervert <ref>Vandervert 2003a, 2003b; Vandervert, Schimpf & Liu, 2007</ref> described how the brain’s frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation.  Vandervert’s explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all thought<ref>Miyake & Shah, 1999</ref>) are adaptively modeled by the cerebellum <ref>Schmahmann, 1997, 2004</ref>.  The cerebellum (consisting of 100 billion neurons, which is more that the entirety of the rest of the brain <ref>Andersen, Korbo & Pakkenberg, 1992</ref>is also widely known to adaptively model all bodily movement.  The cerebellum’s adaptive models of working memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes <ref>Miller & Cohen, 2001</ref> where creative and innovative thoughts arise<ref>Vandervert, 2003a</ref>.  (Apparently, creative insight or the ‘’aha’’ experience is then triggered in the temporal lobe<ref>Jung-Beeman, Bowden, Haberman, Frymiare, Arambel-Liu, Greenblatt, Reber & Kounios, 2004</ref>.)  According to Vandervert, the details of creative adaptation begin in ‘’forward’’ cerebellar models which are anticipatory/exploratory controls for movement and thought.  These cerebellar processing and control architectures have been termed Hierarchical Modular Selection and Identification for Control (HMOSAIC)<ref>Imamizu, Kuroda, Miyauchi, Yoshioka & Kawato, 2003</ref>.  New, hierarchically arranged levels of the cerebellar control architecture (HMOSAIC) develop as mental mulling in working memory is extended over time.  These new levels of the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal lobes.  Since the cerebellum adaptively models all movement and all levels of thought and emotion<ref>Schmahmann, 2004,</ref>, Vandervert’s approach helps explain creativity and innovation in sports, art, music, the design of video games, technology, mathematics and thought in general.

Vandervert described how the brain’s frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation.  Vandervert’s explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all thought are adaptively modeled by the cerebellum.  The cerebellum (consisting of 100 billion neurons, which is more that the entirety of the rest of the brain is also widely known to adaptively model all bodily movement.  The cerebellum’s adaptive models of working memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes where creative and innovative thoughts arise.  (Apparently, creative insight or the ‘’aha’’ experience is then triggered in the temporal lobe)  According to Vandervert, the details of creative adaptation begin in ‘’forward’’ cerebellar models which are anticipatory/exploratory controls for movement and thought.  These cerebellar processing and control architectures have been termed Hierarchical Modular Selection and Identification for Control (HMOSAIC).  New, hierarchically arranged levels of the cerebellar control architecture (HMOSAIC) develop as mental mulling in working memory is extended over time.  These new levels of the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal lobes.  Since the cerebellum adaptively models all movement and all levels of thought and emotion, Vandervert’s approach helps explain creativity and innovation in sports, art, music, the design of video games, technology, mathematics and thought in general.

==Creativity and mental health==

==Creativity and mental health==

A study by psychologist [[J. Philippe Rushton]] found creativity to correlate with [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[psychoticism]].<ref>(Rushton, 1990)</ref> Another study found creativity to be greater in [[schizotypal]] than in either normal or [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] individuals. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the [[prefrontal cortex]], schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their ''right'' prefrontal cortex.<ref>http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/news/news_schizotypes.htm ([http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2005.06.016 Actual paper])</ref> This study hypothesizes that such individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. In agreement with this hypothesis, [[ambidexterity]] is also associated with [[schizotypal]] and [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] individuals.  

A study by psychologist [[J. Philippe Rushton]] found creativity to correlate with [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[psychoticism]].  Another study found creativity to be greater in [[schizotypal]] than in either normal or [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] individuals. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the [[prefrontal cortex]], schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their ''right'' prefrontal cortex. [http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/news/news_schizotypes.htm] [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2005.06.016 Actual paper] This study hypothesizes that such individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. In agreement with this hypothesis, [[ambidexterity]] is also associated with [[schizotypal]] and [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] individuals.  

Particularly strong links have been identified between creativity and [[mood disorder]]s, particularly [[manic-depressive disorder]] (a.k.a. [[bipolar disorder]]) and [[depressive disorder]] (a.k.a. [[unipolar disorder]]). In ''Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament'', [[Kay Redfield Jamison]] summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates in '''[[writers]]''', '''[[poets]]''' and '''[[artists]]'''. She also explores research that identifies [[mood disorder]]s in such famous writers and artists as [[Ernest Hemingway]] (who shot himself after [[electroconvulsive treatment]]), [[Virginia Woolf]] (who drowned herself when she felt a depressive episode coming on), composer [[Robert Schumann]] (who died in a mental institution), and even the famed [[visual artist]] [[Michelangelo]].

Particularly strong links have been identified between creativity and [[mood disorder]]s, particularly [[manic-depressive disorder]] (a.k.a. [[bipolar disorder]]) and [[depressive disorder]] (a.k.a. [[unipolar disorder]]). In ''Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament'', [[Kay Redfield Jamison]] summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates in '''[[writers]]''', '''[[poets]]''' and '''[[artists]]'''. She also explores research that identifies [[mood disorder]]s in such famous writers and artists as [[Ernest Hemingway]] (who shot himself after [[electroconvulsive treatment]]), [[Virginia Woolf]] (who drowned herself when she felt a depressive episode coming on), composer [[Robert Schumann]] (who died in a mental institution), and even the famed [[visual artist]] [[Michelangelo]].

==Measuring creativity==

==Measuring creativity==

===Creativity quotient===

===Creativity quotient===

Several attempts have been made to develop a ''creativity quotient'' of an individual similar to the [[Intelligence quotient]] (IQ), however these have been unsuccessful.<ref>(Kraft, 2005)</ref> Most measures of creativity are dependent on the personal judgement of the tester, so a standardized measure is difficult, if not impossible, to develop.

Several attempts have been made to develop a ''creativity quotient'' of an individual similar to the [[Intelligence quotient]] (IQ), however these have been unsuccessful. Most measures of creativity are dependent on the personal judgement of the tester, so a standardized measure is difficult, if not impossible, to develop.

===Psychometric approach===

===Psychometric approach===

[[J. P. Guilford]]'s group,<ref name="Guildford67"/> which pioneered the modern [[psychometric]] study of creativity, constructed several tests to measure creativity in 1967:

[[J. P. Guilford]]'s group, which pioneered the modern [[psychometric]] study of creativity, constructed several tests to measure creativity in 1967:

* Plot Titles, where participants are given the plot of a story and asked to write original titles.

* Plot Titles, where participants are given the plot of a story and asked to write original titles.

* Quick Responses is a word-association test scored for uncommonness.

* Quick Responses is a word-association test scored for uncommonness.

Creativity is also seen as being increasingly important in a variety of other professions. [[Architecture]] and [[industrial design]] are the fields most often associated with creativity, and more generally the fields of [[design]] and [[design research]]. These fields explicitly value creativity, and journals such as ''Design Studies'' have published many studies on creativity and creative problem solving.<ref>for a typical example see (Dorst et al., 2001)</ref>

Creativity is also seen as being increasingly important in a variety of other professions. [[Architecture]] and [[industrial design]] are the fields most often associated with creativity, and more generally the fields of [[design]] and [[design research]]. These fields explicitly value creativity, and journals such as ''Design Studies'' have published many studies on creativity and creative problem solving.<ref>for a typical example see (Dorst et al., 2001)</ref>

Fields such as [[science]] and [[engineering]] have, by contrast, experienced a less explicit (but arguably no less important) relation to creativity. Simonton<ref name="Simonton99"/> shows how some of the major scientific advances of the 20th century can be attributed to the creativity of individuals. This ability will also be seen as increasingly important for engineers in years to come.<ref>(National Academy of Engineering 2005)</ref>

Fields such as [[science]] and [[engineering]] have, by contrast, experienced a less explicit (but arguably no less important) relation to creativity. Simonton shows how some of the major scientific advances of the 20th century can be attributed to the creativity of individuals. This ability will also be seen as increasingly important for engineers in years to come.<ref>(National Academy of Engineering 2005)</ref>

Accounting has also been associated with creativity with the popular euphemism ''[[creative accounting]]''. Although this term often implies unethical practices, Amabile<ref name="Amabile98"/> has suggested that even this profession can benefit from the (ethical) application of creative thinking.

Accounting has also been associated with creativity with the popular euphemism ''[[creative accounting]]''. Although this term often implies unethical practices, Amabile has suggested that even this profession can benefit from the (ethical) application of creative thinking.

===Creativity in organizations===

===Creativity in organizations===

Amabile<ref name="Amabile98"/> argued that to enhance creativity in business, three components were needed:  

Amabile argued that to enhance creativity in business, three components were needed:  

* Expertise (technical, procedural & intellectual knowledge),  

* Expertise (technical, procedural & intellectual knowledge),  

* Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively people approach problems),  

* Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively people approach problems),  

*and Motivation (especially [[intrinsic motivation]]).  

*and Motivation (especially [[intrinsic motivation]]).  

Nonaka, who examined several successful Japanese companies, similarly saw creativity and knowledge creation as being important to the success of organizations.<ref name="Nonaka91">(Nonaka, 1991)</ref> In particular, he emphasized the role that [[tacit knowledge]] has to play in the creative process.

Nonaka, who examined several successful Japanese companies, similarly saw creativity and knowledge creation as being important to the success of organizations. In particular, he emphasized the role that [[tacit knowledge]] has to play in the creative process.

===Economic views of creativity===

===Economic views of creativity===

Daniel Pink, in his 2005 book ''A Whole New Mind'', repeating arguments posed throughout the 20th century, argues that we are entering a new age where creativity is becoming increasingly important. In this ''conceptual age'', we will need to foster and encourage ''right-directed thinking'' (representing creativity and emotion) over ''left-directed thinking'' (representing logical, analytical thought).

Daniel Pink, in his 2005 book ''A Whole New Mind'', repeating arguments posed throughout the 20th century, argues that we are entering a new age where creativity is becoming increasingly important. In this ''conceptual age'', we will need to foster and encourage ''right-directed thinking'' (representing creativity and emotion) over ''left-directed thinking'' (representing logical, analytical thought).

Nickerson<ref>(Nickerson, 1999)</ref> provides a summary of the various creativity techniques that have been proposed. These include approaches that have been developed by both academia and industry:

Nickerson provides a summary of the various creativity techniques that have been proposed. These include approaches that have been developed by both academia and industry:

# Establishing purpose and intention

# Establishing purpose and intention

# Building basic skills

# Building basic skills