Changes

[[Pico della Mirandola]] (1463-1494) wrote ''Oratio de Hominis Dignitate'' or ''Discourse on the Dignity of Man'' in 1486. Sometimes called "the manifesto of the Renaissance", it invokes [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] to argue for a conception of human worth which, while rooted in faith, spreads to a belief in the importance of the human ability to encompass all knowledge.

[[Pico della Mirandola]] (1463-1494) wrote ''Oratio de Hominis Dignitate'' or ''Discourse on the Dignity of Man'' in 1486. Sometimes called "the manifesto of the Renaissance", it invokes [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] to argue for a conception of human worth which, while rooted in faith, spreads to a belief in the importance of the human ability to encompass all knowledge.

== List of famous philosophers ==

=== List of famous philosophers ===

* [[Petrarch]] (1304-1374)  

* [[Petrarch]] (1304-1374)  

== Movements of Note ==  

=== Movements of Note ===  

*[[Heliocentrism]]

*[[Heliocentrism]]

*[[Hermeticism]]

*[[Hermeticism]]

*[[Secularism]]

*[[Secularism]]

== See also ==

=== See also ===

* [http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/pico/index.html Pico Project]

* [http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/pico/index.html Pico Project]

* [http://www2.sas.ac.uk/ies/events/seminars/Emphasis/index.htm EMPHASIS: Early Modern Philosophy and the Scientific Imagination Seminar]

* [http://www2.sas.ac.uk/ies/events/seminars/Emphasis/index.htm EMPHASIS: Early Modern Philosophy and the Scientific Imagination Seminar]

The era is generally agreed to have ended around the year 1800 and the beginning of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1804-15).

The era is generally agreed to have ended around the year 1800 and the beginning of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1804-15).

==History==

===History===

The Enlightenment is often closely linked with the [[Scientific Revolution]], for both movements emphasized [[reason]], [[science]], and [[rationality]], while the former also sought their application in comprehension of divine or natural law. Inspired by the revolution of knowledge commenced by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], and in a climate of increasing disaffection with repressive rule, Enlightenment thinkers believed that systematic thinking might be applied to all areas of human activity, carried into the [[government]]al sphere in their explorations of the [[individual]], [[society]] and the [[state]]. Its leaders believed they could lead their states to [[Progress (philosophy)|progress]] after a long period of [[tradition]], [[irrationality]], [[superstition]], and [[tyranny]] which they imputed to the [[Middle Ages]].  The movement helped create the intellectual framework for the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s, [[Poland]]'s [[Constitution of May 3, 1791]], the [[Latin American revolutions|Latin American independence movement]], the [[Greece|Greek]] national independence movement and the later [[Balkan]] independence movements against the [[Ottoman Empire]], and led to the rise of [[classical liberalism]], [[democracy]], and [[capitalism]].

The Enlightenment is often closely linked with the [[Scientific Revolution]], for both movements emphasized [[reason]], [[science]], and [[rationality]], while the former also sought their application in comprehension of divine or natural law. Inspired by the revolution of knowledge commenced by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], and in a climate of increasing disaffection with repressive rule, Enlightenment thinkers believed that systematic thinking might be applied to all areas of human activity, carried into the [[government]]al sphere in their explorations of the [[individual]], [[society]] and the [[state]]. Its leaders believed they could lead their states to [[Progress (philosophy)|progress]] after a long period of [[tradition]], [[irrationality]], [[superstition]], and [[tyranny]] which they imputed to the [[Middle Ages]].  The movement helped create the intellectual framework for the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s, [[Poland]]'s [[Constitution of May 3, 1791]], the [[Latin American revolutions|Latin American independence movement]], the [[Greece|Greek]] national independence movement and the later [[Balkan]] independence movements against the [[Ottoman Empire]], and led to the rise of [[classical liberalism]], [[democracy]], and [[capitalism]].

<br />

<br />

==Conflicts==

===Conflicts===

As with theology, philosophy became a source of partisan debate, with different schools attempting to develop rationales for their viewpoints.  Philosophers such as [[Spinoza]] searched for a [[metaphysics]] of ethics, which influenced [[pietism]] and the [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendental]] philosophy of philosophers such as [[Immanuel Kant]].

As with theology, philosophy became a source of partisan debate, with different schools attempting to develop rationales for their viewpoints.  Philosophers such as [[Spinoza]] searched for a [[metaphysics]] of ethics, which influenced [[pietism]] and the [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendental]] philosophy of philosophers such as [[Immanuel Kant]].

Thus rationalization, standardization and the search for fundamental unities occupied much of the Enlightenment and its arguments over proper methodology and nature of understanding. The culminating efforts of the Enlightenment include, amongst other things, the economics of [[Adam Smith]], the physical chemistry of [[Antoine Lavoisier]], the idea of evolution pursued by [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] and the declaration by Jefferson of inalienable rights. Development in the philosophy of the Enlightenment was also the basis for overthrowing the idea of a completely rational and comprehensible universe, and led, in turn, to the metaphysics of Hegel and [[Romanticism]].

Thus rationalization, standardization and the search for fundamental unities occupied much of the Enlightenment and its arguments over proper methodology and nature of understanding. The culminating efforts of the Enlightenment include, amongst other things, the economics of [[Adam Smith]], the physical chemistry of [[Antoine Lavoisier]], the idea of evolution pursued by [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] and the declaration by Jefferson of inalienable rights. Development in the philosophy of the Enlightenment was also the basis for overthrowing the idea of a completely rational and comprehensible universe, and led, in turn, to the metaphysics of Hegel and [[Romanticism]].

== Influence ==

=== Influence ===

The Enlightenment occupies a central role in the justification for the movement known as [[modernism]]. The neo-classicizing trend in modernism came to see itself as a period of rationality which overturned established traditions, analogously to the Encyclopaediasts and other Enlightenment philosophers. A variety of 20th century movements, including [[liberalism]] and [[neo-classicism]], traced their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment, and away from the purported emotionalism of the 19th century. Geometric order, rigor and reductionism were seen as Enlightenment virtues. The modern movement points to [[reductionism]] and [[rationality]] as crucial aspects of Enlightenment thinking, of which it is the heir, as opposed to irrationality and emotionalism. In this view, the Enlightenment represents the basis for modern ideas of [[liberalism]] against [[superstition]] and [[intolerance]]. Influential philosophers who have held this view include [[Jürgen Habermas]] and [[Isaiah Berlin]].

The Enlightenment occupies a central role in the justification for the movement known as [[modernism]]. The neo-classicizing trend in modernism came to see itself as a period of rationality which overturned established traditions, analogously to the Encyclopaediasts and other Enlightenment philosophers. A variety of 20th century movements, including [[liberalism]] and [[neo-classicism]], traced their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment, and away from the purported emotionalism of the 19th century. Geometric order, rigor and reductionism were seen as Enlightenment virtues. The modern movement points to [[reductionism]] and [[rationality]] as crucial aspects of Enlightenment thinking, of which it is the heir, as opposed to irrationality and emotionalism. In this view, the Enlightenment represents the basis for modern ideas of [[liberalism]] against [[superstition]] and [[intolerance]]. Influential philosophers who have held this view include [[Jürgen Habermas]] and [[Isaiah Berlin]].

Still yet, other leading intellectuals, such as [[Noam Chomsky]], see a natural evolution, using the term loosely, from early Enlightenment thinking to other forms of social analysis, specifically from The Enlightenment to [[liberalism]], [[anarchism]] and [[socialism]]. The relationship between these different schools of thought, Chomsky and others point out {{Fact|date=August 2007}}, can be seen in the works of [[von Humboldt]], [[Kropotkin]], [[Bakunin]] and [[Marx]], among others.

Still yet, other leading intellectuals, such as [[Noam Chomsky]], see a natural evolution, using the term loosely, from early Enlightenment thinking to other forms of social analysis, specifically from The Enlightenment to [[liberalism]], [[anarchism]] and [[socialism]]. The relationship between these different schools of thought, Chomsky and others point out {{Fact|date=August 2007}}, can be seen in the works of [[von Humboldt]], [[Kropotkin]], [[Bakunin]] and [[Marx]], among others.

==Important figures==

===Important figures===

 

* [[Baruch Spinoza]] (1632-1672) Dutch philosopher who is considered laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment.

* [[Baruch Spinoza]] (1632-1672) Dutch philosopher who is considered laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment.

* [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]

* [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]

==See also==

===See also===

* [[Natural philosophy]]

* [[Natural philosophy]]

* [[Humanism]]

* [[Humanism]]

* [[Christianity]]

* [[Christianity]]

==Further reading==

===Further reading===

* [[Henry F. May]] ''The Enlightenment in America'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976)

* [[Henry F. May]] ''The Enlightenment in America'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976)

* [[Ernst Cassirer]], ''The Philosophy of the Enlightenment,'' Princeton University Press 1979

* [[Ernst Cassirer]], ''The Philosophy of the Enlightenment,'' Princeton University Press 1979

* The [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ London Philosophy Study Guide] offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Modern.htm Modern Philosophy]

* The [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ London Philosophy Study Guide] offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Modern.htm Modern Philosophy]

==External links==

===External links===

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-10 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] The Enlightenment

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-10 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] The Enlightenment

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-11 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] The [[Counter-Enlightenment]]

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-11 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] The [[Counter-Enlightenment]]