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| − | [[Image:Wm james.jpg|thumb|right|150px|American psychologist and philosopher William James (1842–1910) was an early psychical researcher.]] | |
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| − | '''Parapsychology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]]: παρά ''para'', "alongside" + ''[[psychology]]'') is the study of ostensibly [[paranormal]] events including [[extrasensory perception]], [[psychokinesis]], and [[Life after death|survival of consciousness]] after death. '''Parapsychologists''' call these processes ''[[psi (parapsychology)|psi]]'', a term intended to be descriptive without implying a mechanism.<ref> {{cite journal|last=Bem|first=D. J.|coauthors= Honorton, C.|date=1994|title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer|journal=[[Psychological Bulletin]]|volume=115|pages=4–18}} </ref> Parapsychology is a [[fringe science]] because it involves research that does not fit within [[Scientific modelling|standard theoretical models]] accepted by [[Scientific consensus|mainstream science]]. | + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925 1925] |
| | + | ==Definition== |
| | + | *1: a field of [[study]] concerned with the [[investigation]] of [[evidence]] for paranormal psychological phenomena (as [[telepathy]], [[clairvoyance]], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychokinesis psychokinesis]) |
| | + | ==Wikipedia== |
| | + | The term '''parapsychology''' (also known as ''psi'' phenomena) was coined in or around 1889 by philosopher [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Dessoir Max Dessoir], and originates from ''para'' meaning "alongside", and [[psychology]]. The term was adopted by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.B._Rhine J.B. Rhine] in the 1930s as a replacement for the term psychical research. Parapsychologists [[study]] a number of ostensibly paranormal [[phenomena]], including [[telepathy]], precognition, [[clairvoyance]], psychokinesis, [[near-death experiences]], [[reincarnation]] and [[apparition]]al experiences. |
| | + | <center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Parapsychology''''', follow [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Parapsychology/TeaM '''''this link'''''].</center> |
| | + | Parapsychology [[research]] is conducted in some 30 different countries. [[Laboratory]] and field research is conducted through private [[institutions]] and [[universities]]. Privately funded units in [[psychology]] departments at universities in the United Kingdom are among the most active today. In the [[United States]], interest in research peaked in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970's 1970s] and university-based research has declined since then, although private institutions still receive funding from donations. While parapsychological research has occasionally appeared in [[mainstream]] academic journals, most of the recent research is published in a small number of [[niche]] journals. Journals dealing with parapsychology include the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Parapsychology Journal of Parapsychology], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Near-Death_Studies Journal of Near-Death Studies], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Consciousness_Studies Journal of Consciousness Studies], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_Society_for_Psychical_Research Journal of the Society for Psychical Research] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Scientific_Exploration Journal of Scientific Exploration]. |
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| − | Parapsychological research involves a variety of methodologies including laboratory research and fieldwork, which is conducted at privately funded laboratories and some universities around the world<ref name=faqfile1> {{cite web|url=http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html |title=Parapsychological Association FAQ |accessdate=2007-07-02 |date=1995 |publisher=Parapsychological Association}}</ref> though there are fewer universities actively sponsoring parapsychological research today than in years past. Such research is published in specialized parapsychological publications, though a smaller number of articles on parapsychological research have also appeared in more mainstream journals. Experiments conducted by parapsychologists have included the use of [[random number generators]] to test for evidence of psychokinesis, sensory-deprivation [[Ganzfeld experiment]]s to test for extrasensory perception, and research trials conducted under contract to the United States government to investigate the possibility of [[remote viewing]].
| + | [[Critics]] state that [[methodological]] [[flaws]] can explain any apparent [[experimental]] successes and the status of parapsychology as a [[science]] has been vigorously disputed. Many scientists regard the [[discipline]] as [[pseudoscience]], saying that parapsychologists continue investigation despite not having demonstrated conclusive [[evidence]] of psychic abilities in more than a century of [[research]].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology] |
| − | | + | ==Concise Encyclopedia== |
| − | Scientists such as [[Ray Hyman]], [[Stanley Krippner]], and James Alcock, among others, are critical of both the methodology used and the results obtained in parapsychology. Skeptical researchers suggest that methodological flaws provide the best explanation for apparent experimental successes, rather than the anomalistic explanations offered by many parapsychologists. To date, no evidence has been accepted by the [[scientific consensus|scientific community]] as establishing the existence of paranormal phenomena. Active parapsychologists have admitted difficulty in getting scientists to accept their research<ref>http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html FAQ of the Parapsychological Association</ref>, and science educators at the [[California State Board of Education]] have called the subject [[pseudoscience]] in their academic standards literature.<ref name="CaliBoard">{{cite book |last=|first=|title=Science Framework for California Public Schools|publisher=California State Board of Education|date=1990}}</ref>
| + | [[Discipline]] concerned with [[investigating]] events that cannot be accounted for by [[natural law]] and [[knowledge]] that cannot have been obtained through the usual [[sensory]] [[abilities]]. Parapsychology studies the [[cognitive]] phenomena often called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESP extrasensory perception], in which a person acquires knowledge of other people's [[thoughts]] or of [[future]] events through [[channels]] apparently beyond the five [[senses]]. It also examines [[physical]] phenomena such as the levitation of objects and the bending of metal through [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychokinesis psychokinesis]. Though [[belief]] in such phenomena may be traced to earliest times, parapsychology as a subject of serious [[research]] originated in the late 19th century, partly in [[reaction]] to the [[growth]] of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritualism spiritualist movement]. The [https://www.spr.ac.uk/ Society of Psychical Research] was established in London in 1882, and similar societies were later founded in the U.S. and in many European countries. In the 20th century research into parapsychology was also conducted at some [[universities]], notably at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University Duke University] under [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.B._Rhine J. B. Rhine]. |
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| − | ==History==
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| − | The term ''parapsychology'' was coined in or before 1889 by psychologist [[Max Dessoir]]. It was adopted by [[J.B. Rhine]] in the 1930s as a replacement for the term ''psychical research'', to indicate a significant shift toward laboratory methodologies applied to the study of psychical phenomena.<ref name=Melton>{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Parapsychology. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |date=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref>
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| − | ===Early psychical research===
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| − | The [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR) was founded in London in 1882. The formation of the SPR was the first systematic effort to organize scientists and scholars for a critical and sustained investigation of paranormal phenomena. The early membership of the SPR included philosophers, scholars, scientists, educators and politicians, such as [[Henry Sidgwick]], [[Arthur Balfour]], [[William Crookes]], and [[Charles Richet]].<ref name=Beloff>{{cite book |last=Beloff |first=John |authorlink= |title=Handbook of parapsychology |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |date=1977 |pages= |isbn=0442295766}}</ref>
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| − | The SPR classified its subjects of study into several areas: [[telepathy]], [[hypnotism]], Reichenbach's phenomena, [[apparitional experiences|apparitions]], [[hauntings|haunts]], and the physical aspects of [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]] such as table-tilting and the appearance of matter from unknown sources, otherwise known as [[Materialization (paranormal)|materialization]]. One of the first collaborative efforts of the SPR was its ''Census of Hallucinations'', which researched apparitional experiences and [[hallucinations in the sane]]. The census was the Society's first attempt at a statistical evaluation of paranormal phenomena, and the resulting publication in 1886, ''Phantasms of the Living'' is still widely referenced in parapsychological literature today. The SPR became the model for similar societies in other European countries and the United States during the late 19th century. Largely due to the support of psychologist [[William James]], the [[American Society for Psychical Research]] (ASPR) opened its doors in [[New York City]] in 1885.<ref name=Berger>{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Arthur S. |authorlink= |coauthors=Berger, Joyce |title=The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research |publisher=Paragon House Publishers |date=1991 |pages= |isbn=1557780439}}</ref>
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| − | Today, the SPR and ASPR continue the investigation of [[Psi (parapsychology)|psi phenomena]]. The SPR's purpose is stated in every issue of its ''Journal''—being "to examine without prejudice or prepossession and in a scientific spirit those faculties of man, real or supposed, which appear to be inexplicable on any generally recognized hypothesis."<ref>{{cite book |last=Wooffitt |first=Robin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Language of Mediums and Psychics: The Social Organization of Everyday Miracles |publisher=Ashgate |date=2006 |pages= |isbn=075464202X}}</ref>
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| − | ===Rhine era===
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| − | In 1911, [[Stanford University]] became the first academic institution in the [[United States]] to study extrasensory perception (ESP) and [[psychokinesis]] (PK) in a laboratory setting. The effort was headed by psychologist John Edgar Coover. In 1930, [[Duke University]] became the second major U.S. academic institution to engage in the critical study of ESP and psychokinesis in the laboratory. Under the guidance of psychologist [[William McDougall]], and with the help of others in the department—including psychologists [[Karl Zener]], [[Joseph B. Rhine]], and Louisa E. Rhine—laboratory ESP experiments using volunteer subjects from the undergraduate student body began. As opposed to the approaches of psychical research, which generally sought [[Qualitative research|qualitative evidence]] for paranormal phenomena, the experiments at Duke University proffered a [[Quantitative research| quantitative]], [[statistical]] approach using [[Zener cards|cards]] and dice. As a consequence of the ESP experiments at Duke, standard laboratory procedures for the testing of ESP developed and came to be adopted by interested researchers throughout the world.<ref name="Berger"/>
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| − | The publication of J.B. Rhine's book, ''New Frontiers of the Mind'' (1937) brought the laboratory's findings to the general public. In his book, Rhine popularized the word "parapsychology," which psychologist [[Max Dessoir]] had coined over 40 years earlier, to describe the research conducted at Duke. Rhine also founded an autonomous Parapsychology Laboratory within Duke and started the ''[[Journal of Parapsychology]]'', which he co-edited with McDougall.
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| − | The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked much criticism from academic psychologists who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP. Rhine and his colleagues attempted to address these criticisms through new experiments, articles, and books, and summarized the state of the criticism along with their responses in the book ''Extra-Sensory Perception After Sixty Years''.
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| − | The administration of Duke grew less sympathetic to parapsychology, and after Rhine's retirement in 1965 parapsychological links with the university were broken. Rhine later established the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man (FRNM) and the Institute for Parapsychology as a successor to the Duke laboratory.<ref name="Berger"/> In 1995, the centenary of Rhine's birth, the FRNM was renamed the Rhine Research Center. Today, the Rhine Research Center is a parapsychology research unit, stating that it "aims to improve the human condition by creating a scientific understanding of those abilities and sensitivities that appear to transcend the ordinary limits of space and time."<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of the Rhine Research Center |publisher=Rhine Research Center |url=http://www.rhine.org/f_hist.htm |accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref>
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| − | ===Establishment of the Parapsychological Association===
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| − | The [[Parapsychological Association]] (PA) was created in [[Durham, North Carolina]], on [[June 19]], [[1957]]. Its formation was proposed by J. B. Rhine at a workshop on parapsychology which was held at the Parapsychology Laboratory of Duke University. Rhine proposed that the group form itself into the nucleus of an international professional society in parapsychology. The aim of the organization, as stated in its Constitution, became "to advance parapsychology as a science, to disseminate knowledge of the field, and to integrate the findings with those of other branches of science".<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Parapsychological Association |url=http://www.parapsych.org/history_of_pa.html |work=The Parapsychological Association |accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref>
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| − | Under the direction of anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the Parapsychological Association took a large step in advancing the field of parapsychology in 1969 when it became affiliated with the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS), the largest general scientific society in the world.<ref>{{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. G. |authorlink= |title=Parapsychological Association. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisher=[[Thomson Gale]] |date=1996 |pages= |isbn=978-0810394872}}</ref> In 1979, physicist [[John A. Wheeler]] argued that parapsychology is pseudoscientific, and that the affiliation of the PA to the AAAS needed to be reconsidered.<ref name=Wheeler>{{cite book | author = [[John Archibald Wheeler]] | title = Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics | publisher = [[W. W. Norton]] | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-39304-642-7 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Yk5cth-oZmQC&pg=PA343&lpg=PA343&dq=aaas+meeting+parapsychology&source=web&ots=6QhZmeLkBy&sig=ZuSfhM0YvTScEm-rvZ1GDVlVpyU
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | His challenge to parapsychology's AAAS affiliation was unsuccessful.<ref name=Wheeler /> Today, the PA consists of about three hundred full, associate, and affiliated members worldwide and maintains its affiliation with the AAAS.<ref name=Harvey>{{cite book |last=Irwin |first=Harvey J. |authorlink = |title=An Introduction to Parapsychology, Fourth Edition |publisher=McFarland & Company |date=2007 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jB88qA7C9oYC&dq=An+Introduction+to+Parapsychology.&pg=PP1&ots=L53QIyz2qx&sig=-2bQfPeTt1QDFDJN_RzNSgQ4ZCs&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26channel%3Ds%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26hs%3D0AF%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dspell%26resnum%3D0%26ct%3Dresult%26cd%3D1%26q%3DAn%2BIntroduction%2Bto%2BParapsychology.%26spell%3D1&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title
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| − | |isbn=0786418338 |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> The annual AAAS convention provides a forum where parapsychologists can present their research to scientists from other fields and advance parapsychology in the context of the AAAS's lobbying on national science policy.<ref name=Harvey />
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| − | ===Decade of increased research (1970s)===
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| − | The affiliation of the Parapsychological Association (PA) with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, along with a general openness to psychic and [[occult]] phenomena in the 1970s, led to a decade of increased parapsychological research. During this period, other notable organizations were also formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the [[Institute of Noetic Sciences]] (1973), the International Kirlian Research Association (1975), and the [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory]] (1979). Parapsychological work was also conducted at the [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI) during this time.<ref name="Melton"/>
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| − | The scope of parapsychology expanded during these years. Psychiatrist [[Ian Stevenson]] conducted much of his controversial research into [[reincarnation]] during the 1970s. Psychologist [[Thelma Moss]] devoted time to the study of [[Kirlian photography]] at [[UCLA]]'s parapsychology laboratory. The influx of spiritual teachers from Asia, and their claims of abilities produced by [[meditation]], led to research on [[altered states of consciousness]]. Physicist [[Russell Targ]] coined the term [[remote viewing]] for use in some of his [[Early psi research at SRI|work at SRI]] in 1974.<ref name="Melton"/>
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| − | During this period, academics outside parapsychology also appeared to have a general optimism towards this research. In 1979, a survey of more than 1,100 college professors in the United States found that only 2% of [[psychologists]] expressed the belief that extrasensory perception was an impossibility. A far greater number, 34%, indicated that they believed ESP was either an established fact or a likely possibility. The percentage was even higher in other areas of study: 55% of [[natural science| natural scientists]], 66% of [[social scientists]] (excluding psychologists), and 77% of academics in the [[arts]], [[humanities]], and [[education]] believed that ESP research was worthwhile.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wagner |first= M. W |authorlink= |coauthors=Monnet, M. |title=Attitudes of college professors toward extrasensory perception |journal=Zetetic Scholar |issue=5 |pages=7–17 |date=1979}}</ref>
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| − | The surge in paranormal research continued throughout the 1970s and into the 1980s. By the end of the 1980s, the Parapsychological Association reported members working in more than 30 countries. Additionally, research not affiliated with the PA was being carried out in [[Eastern Europe]] and the former [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="Melton"/>
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| − | ===Parapsychology today===
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| − | Since the 1970s, contemporary parapsychological research has waned considerably in the United States.<ref name="Smee"/> Early research was considered inconclusive, and parapsychologists were faced with strong opposition from their academic colleagues.<ref name="Melton"/> Some effects thought to be paranormal, for example, the effects of [[Kirlian|Kirlian photography]], disappeared under more stringent controls, leaving those avenues of research at dead-ends.<ref name="Melton"/> Many university laboratories in the United States have closed, citing a lack of acceptance by mainstream science as the reason, leaving the bulk of parapsychology confined to private institutions funded by private sources.<ref name="Melton"/> After 28 years of research, [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory]] (PEAR) retired their laboratory in 2007.<ref name=Smee>{{cite journal |title=The lab that asked the wrong questions |journal=Nature |date=2007-03-01 |first=Lucy |last=Odling-Smee |issue=446 |pages=10–11 |doi=10.1038/446010a |url=http://intl.emboj.org/nature/journal/v446/n7131/full/446010a.html |accessdate=2007-06-29}}</ref>
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| − | Two universities in the United States still have academic parapsychology laboratories: the Division of Perceptual Studies, a unit at the [[University of Virginia]]'s Department of Psychiatric Medicine, studies the possibility of survival of consciousness after bodily death; the [[University of Arizona]]'s Veritas Laboratory conducts laboratory investigations of [[mediums]]. Several private institutions, including the Institute of Noetic Sciences, conduct and promote parapsychological research. [[UK|Britain]] leads parapsychological study in [[Europe]], with privately funded laboratories at the universities of [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]], [[University of Northampton|Northampton]], and [[Liverpool Hope University|Liverpool Hope]], among others.<ref name="Smee"/>
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| − | Parapsychological research has also been augmented by other sub-disciplines of psychology. These related fields include [[transpersonal psychology]], which studies transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human mind, and anomalistic psychology, which examines paranormal beliefs and subjective anomalous experiences in traditional psychological terms.<ref name=cardenza>{{cite book |last=Cardena |first=Etzel |authorlink= |title=Varieties of Anomalous Experience: Examining the Scientific Evidence
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| − | |publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) |date=2004 |pages= |isbn=1557986258}}</ref><ref name="Smee"/>
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| − | ==Research==
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| − | ===Scope===
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| − | Parapsychologists study a number of ostensible paranormal phenomena, including but not limited to:
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| − | *'''[[Telepathy]]''': Transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the [[Sense#Five classical senses|five classical senses]].
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| − | *'''[[Precognition]]''': Perception of information about future places or events before they occur.
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| − | *'''[[Clairvoyance]]''': Obtaining information about places or events at remote locations, by means unknown to current science.
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| − | *'''[[Psychokinesis]]''': The ability of the mind to influence matter, time, space, or energy by means unknown to current science.
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| − | *'''[[Reincarnation]]''': The rebirth of a soul or other non-physical aspect of human [[consciousness]] in a new physical body after death.
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| − | *'''[[Haunting]]s''': Phenomena often attributed to ghosts and encountered in places a deceased individual is thought to have frequented, or in association with the person's former belongings.
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| − | The definitions for the terms above may not reflect their [[mainstream]] usage, nor the opinions of all parapsychologists and their critics. Many critics, for example, feel that parapsychologists are engaged in the study of phenomena that disappear under stringent experimental conditions and are thus normal processes.
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| − | According to the Parapsychological Association, parapsychologists do not study all paranormal phenomena, nor are they concerned with [[astrology]], [[UFOs]], [[Bigfoot]], [[paganism]], [[vampires]], [[alchemy]], or [[witchcraft]].<ref name=faqfile1 />
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| − | ===Methodology===
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| − | Parapsychologists employ a variety of approaches during the study of apparent paranormal phenomena. These methods include qualitative approaches used in traditional psychology, but also quantitative [[empirical]] methodologies. Their more controversial studies involve the use of [[meta-analysis]] in examining the [[Statistics| statistical]] evidence for [[Psi (parapsychology)| psi]].<ref name="Smee"/>
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| − | ===Experimental research===
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| − | ====Ganzfeld====
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| − | The [[Ganzfeld experiment|ganzfeld]] (German for "whole field") is a technique used to test individuals for telepathy. The technique was developed to quickly quiet mental "noise" by providing a mild, unpatterned sensory field to mask the [[visual]] and [[auditory]] environment. Isolating the visual sense is usually achieved by creating a soft red glow which is diffused through half ping-pong balls attached to the recipient's eyes. The auditory sense is usually blocked by playing white noise, static, or similar sounds to the recipient. The subject is also seated in a reclined, comfortable position to minimize the sense of touch.
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| − | In the typical ganzfeld experiment, a "sender" and "receiver" are isolated. The receiver is put into the ganzfeld state, and the sender is shown a video clip or still picture and asked to mentally send that image to the receiver. The receiver, while in the ganzfeld, is asked to continuously speak aloud all mental processes, including images, thoughts, and feelings. At the end of the sending period, typically about 20 to 40 minutes in length, the receiver is taken out of the ganzfeld and shown four images or videos, one of which is the true target and three are non-target decoys. The receiver attempts to select the true target, using perceptions experienced during the ganzfeld state as clues to what the mentally "sent" image might have been.
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| − | According to parapsychologists such as [[Dean Radin]], [[Charles Honorton]], and [[Daryl Bem]], the results of ganzfeld experiments—collectively gathered from over 3,000 individual sessions conducted by about two dozen investigators worldwide—indicate that, on average, the target image is selected by the receiver more often than would be expected by chance alone.<ref name=Radnin97>{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink = |title=The Conscious Universe: The scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |date=1997 |pages= |isbn=0062515020}}</ref> Because these meta analyses of ganzfeld results are said to be [[Statistical significance| statistically significant]], they have sparked debates within mainstream academic psychology journals over how to properly interpret the data.<ref name=Honorton>{{cite journal |last=Bem |first=Daryl J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Honorton, Charles |title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=4–18 |date=1995 |url=http://www.dbem.ws/Does%20Psi%20Exist%3F.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
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| − | ====Remote viewing====
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| − | Remote viewing experiments test the ability to gather information on a remote target consisting of an object, place, or person that is hidden from the physical perception of the viewer and typically separated from the viewer at some distance. In one type of remote viewing experiment, a pool of several hundred photographs are created. One of these is randomly selected by a third party to be the target. It is then set aside in a remote location. The remote viewer attempts to sketch or otherwise describe that remote target photo. This procedure is repeated for a number of different targets. Many ways of analytically evaluating the results of this sort of experiment have been developed. One common method is to take the group of seven target photos and responses, randomly shuffle the targets and responses, and then ask independent judges to rank or match the correct targets with the participant's actual responses. This method assumes that if there were an anomalous transfer of information, the responses should correspond more closely to the correct targets than to the mismatched targets.<ref name="Dunne"/>
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| − | Several hundred such trials have been conducted by investigators over the past 25 years, including by the [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory]] (PEAR) and by scientists at [[SRI International]] and [[Science Applications International Corporation|SAIC]], under contract by the [[U.S. government]]. The cumulative data was interpreted by Professor of Aerospace Science [[Robert G. Jahn]] and psychologist Brenda Dunne at PEAR as indicating that information about remote photos, actual scenes, and events can be perceived beyond chance expectation.<ref name=Dunne>{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer |journal=Journal of Scientific Exploration |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=207–241 |date=2003 |url=http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/abstracts/v17n2a1.php |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
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| − | ====Psychokinesis on random number generators====
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| − | The advent of powerful and inexpensive electronic and computer technologies has allowed the development of fully automated experiments studying possible interactions between [[mind and matter]]. In the most common experiment of this type, a [[random number generator]] (RNG), based on electronic or [[radioactive]] noise, produces a data stream that is recorded and analyzed by computer [[software]]. A subject attempts to mentally alter the distribution of the random numbers, usually in an experimental design that is functionally equivalent to getting more "heads" than "tails" while flipping a coin. In the RNG experiment, design flexibility can be combined with rigorous controls, while collecting a large amount of data in very short period of time. This technique has been used both to test individuals for psychokinesis and to test the possible influence on RNGs of large groups of people.<ref name=Dunne85>{{cite journal |last=Dunne |first=Brenda J. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=On the quantum mechanics of consciousness, with application to anomalous phenomena |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=721–772 |date=1985 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/vtrr87tg356154r7/ |doi=10.1007/BF00735378 |issn=0015-9018 (Print) 1572-9516 (Online)|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
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| − | Major meta-analyses of the RNG database have been published every few years since appearing in the journal ''[[Foundations of Physics]]'' in 1986.<ref name="Dunne85"/> PEAR founder [[Robert G. Jahn]] and his colleague Brenda Dunne say that the effect size in all cases was found to be very small, but consistent across time and experimental designs, resulting in an overall [[statistical significance]]. The most recent meta-analysis was published in ''[[Psychological Bulletin]]'', along with several critical commentaries.<ref name="pmid16822162">{{cite journal |author=Bösch H, Steinkamp F, Boller E |title=Examining psychokinesis: the interaction of human intention with random number generators—a meta-analysis |journal=Psychological bulletin |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=497–523 |year=2006 |pmid=16822162 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.497}}</ref><ref name="pmid16822164">{{cite journal |author=Radin, D.; Nelson, R.; Dobyns, Y.; Houtkooper, J. |title=Reexamining psychokinesis: comment on Bösch, Steinkamp, and Boller |journal=Psychological bulletin |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=529–32; discussion 533–37 |year=2006 |pmid=16822164 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.529 |issn=}}</ref> The meta-analysis was composed of 380 studies, which some researchers say has produced an overall effect size that was very small but statistically significant.
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| − | ====Direct mental interactions with living systems====
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| − | Formerly called bio-PK, "direct mental interactions with living systems" (DMILS) studies the effects of one person's intentions on a distant person's [[psychophysiological]] state. One type of DMILS experiment looks at the commonly reported "feeling of being stared at." The "starer" and the "staree" are isolated in different locations, and the starer is periodically asked to simply gaze at the staree via closed circuit video links. Meanwhile, the staree's nervous system activity is automatically and continuously monitored.
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| − | Parapsychologists have interpreted the cumulative data on this and similar DMILS experiments to suggest that one person's attention directed towards a remote, isolated person can significantly activate or calm that person's [[nervous system]]. In a meta-analysis of these experiments published in the ''British Journal of Psychology'' in 2004, researchers found that there was a small but significant overall DMILS effect. However, the study also found that when a small number of the highest-quality studies from one laboratory were analyzed, the effect size was not significant. The authors concluded that although the existence of some anomaly related to distant intentions cannot be ruled out, there was also a shortage of independent replications and theoretical concepts.<ref name="pmid15142304">{{cite journal |author=Schmidt, S.; Schneider, R.; Utts, J.; Walach, H. |title=Distant intentionality and the feeling of being stared at: two meta-analyses |journal=British journal of psychology (London, England : 1953) |volume=95 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=235–47 |year=2004 |pmid=15142304 |doi=10.1348/000712604773952449 |issn=}}</ref>
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| − | ===Near death experiences===
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| − | [[Image:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg|165px|right|thumb|''[[Ascent of the Blessed]]'' by [[Hieronymus Bosch]] depicts a tunnel of light and spiritual figures similar to those reported by near-death experiencers.'']]
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| − | A [[near-death experience]] (NDE) is an experience reported by a person who nearly died, or who experienced [[clinical death]] and then revived. NDEs include one or more of the following experiences: a sense of being dead; an [[out-of-body experience]]; a sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area; a sense of overwhelming love and peace; a sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway; meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures; encountering a being of light, or a light; experiencing a [[life review]]; reaching a border or boundary; and a feeling of being returned to the body, often accompanied by reluctance. (Psychology Today[http://psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19920701-000030.html])
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| − | Interest in the NDE was originally spurred by the research of psychiatrists [[Elisabeth Kübler-Ross]], George Ritchie, and [[Raymond Moody| Raymond Moody Jr]]. In 1998, Moody was appointed chair in "consciousness studies" at the [[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]]. The [[International Association for Near-death Studies]] (IANDS) was founded in 1978 to meet the needs of early researchers and experiencers within this field of research. Later researchers, such as psychiatrist [[Bruce Greyson]], psychologist [[Kenneth Ring]], and cardiologist Michael Sabom, introduced the study of near-death experiences to the academic setting.
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| − | ===Anomalous psychology ===
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| − | A number of studies conducted in the [[Americas|American]], [[Europe]]an, and [[Australasian]] continents have found that a majority of people surveyed report having had experiences that could be interpreted as telepathy, [[precognition]], and similar phenomena. Variables that have been associated with reports of psi-phenomena include belief in the reality of psi; the tendency to have [[hypnotic]], [[dissociative]], and other alterations of consciousness; and, less reliably so, [[neuroticism]], [[extraversion]], and openness to experience. Although psi-related experiences can occur in the context of such psychopathologies as schizotypal personality, dissociative, and other disorders, most individuals who endorse a belief in psi are well-adjusted, lack serious [[pathology]], and are not intellectually deficient or lacking critical abilities.<ref name="cardenza"/>
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| − | ==Criticism==
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| − | Scientists who are critical of parapsychology begin with the assertion that extraordinary claims demand extraordinary evidence. Proponents of hypotheses that contradict centuries of scientific research must provide extraordinary evidence if their hypotheses are to be taken seriously.<ref name=Gracely>{{cite web |last=Gracely, Ph.D. |first=Ed J. |authorlink= |title=Why Extraordinary Claims Demand Extraordinary Proof |work=PhACT |date=1998 |url=http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/extraproof.html
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| − | |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Many analysts of parapsychology hold that the entire body of evidence to date is of poor quality and not adequately controlled. In their view, the entire field of parapsychology has produced no conclusive results whatsoever. They cite instances of fraud, flawed studies, a [[Magical thinking|psychological need for mysticism]], and [[cognitive bias]] as ways to explain parapsychological results.<ref>{{cite book |last=Myers |first=David G |title=Psychology |edition=8th |date=2006 |publisher=Worth Publishers, Inc. |isbn=0716764288}}</ref> Skeptics have also contended that people's desire to believe in paranormal phenomena is often stronger than the evidence that it does not exist.<ref>{{cite web |last=Myers |first=David G |authorlink= |coauthors=Blackmore, Susan |title=Putting ESP to the Experimental Test |work=Hope College |url=http://www.davidmyers.org/Brix?pageID=61&article_part=4 |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
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| − | The reality of parapsychological phenomena and the scientific validity of parapsychological research is a matter of continued dispute. The methods of parapsychologists are regarded by some critics, including science educators at the [[California State Board of Education]],<ref name="CaliBoard" /> as a [[pseudoscience]].<ref name=Beyerstein>{{cite web |last=Beyerstein |first=Barry L. |authorlink= |title=Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience |work=Simon Fraser University |date=1995 |url=http://www.sfu.ca/~beyerste/research/articles/02SciencevsPseudoscience.pdf
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| − | |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> Some of the more specific criticisms state that parapsychology does not have a clearly defined subject matter, an easily repeatable experiment that can demonstrate a psi effect on demand, nor an underlying theory to explain the paranormal transfer of information.<ref name=Hyman /> James E. Alcock, Professor of [[Psychology]] at [[York University]], said that few of parapsychology's experimental results have prompted interdisciplinary research with more mainstream sciences such as [[physics]] or [[biology]]. Alcock states that parapsychology remains isolated science to such an extent that its very legitimacy is questionable,<ref name=Alcock81>{{cite book |last=Alcock |first=J. E. |authorlink= |title=Parapsychology, Science or Magic? |publisher=Pergamon Press |date=1981 |isbn=0080257720}}</ref> and as a whole is not justified in being labeled "scientific".<ref name=Alcock98>{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=J. E. |authorlink= |title=Science, pseudoscience, and anomaly |journal=BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES |date=1998}}</ref>
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| − | ===Fraud===
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| − | [[Image:James Randi crop.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Magic (illusion)|Stage magician]] and [[debunker]] [[James Randi]] is a well-known critic of parapsychology and has shown that [[Magic (illusion)|magic tricks]] can account for some apparent psychic phenomena.]]
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| − | There have been instances of [[fraud]] in the history of parapsychology research. The Soal-Goldney experiments of 1941–43 (suggesting precognitive ability in subjects) were long regarded as some of the best in the field because they relied upon independent checking and witnesses to prevent fraud. However, many years later, suspicions of fraud were confirmed when statistical evidence, uncovered and published by other parapsychologists in the field, indicated that Dr. Soal had cheated by altering the raw data.<ref name=Alcock81/><ref name=Haskell>
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| − | {{cite journal |last=Scott |first=C. |authorlink= |coauthors=Haskell, P. |title="Normal" Explanation of the Soal-Goldney Experiments in Extrasensory Perception |journal=Nature |volume=245 |issue=5419 |pages=52–54 |date=1973 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Natur.245...52S |doi=10.1038/245052a0 |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref name=Marwick>{{cite journal |last=Markwick |first=B |authorlink= |coauthors=Haskell, P. |title=The Soal-Goldney experiments with Basil Shackleton: new evidence of data manipulation |journal=Proc Soc Psychical Res |volume=56 |pages=250–277 |date=1978}}</ref>
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| − | Walter J. Levy, director of the Institute for Parapsychology, reported on a series of successful ESP experiments involving computer-controlled manipulation of non-human subjects, including eggs and rats. His experiments showed very high positive results. Because the subjects were non-human, and because the experimental environment was mostly automated, his successful experiments avoided criticism concerning experimenter effects, and removed the question of the subject's belief as an influence on the outcome. However, Levy's fellow researchers became suspicious about his methods. They found that Levy interfered with data-recording equipment, manually creating fraudulent strings of positive results. Rhine fired Levy and reported the fraud in a number of articles.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rhine, J.B |title=A new case of experimenter unreliability |journal=Journal of Parapsychology |volume=38 |pages=137–153 |year=1974}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bauer, E |title=Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology – An Overview |journal=European Journal of Parapsychology |volume=5 |pages=141–166 |year=1984 |url=http://www.psy.gu.se/EJP/EJP1984Bauer.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
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| − | Many [[spiritualist]] [[Mediumship|mediums]] used fraud, and some were exposed by early psychical researchers such as Richard Hodgson<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A040457b.htm |title=Hodgson, Richard (1855 - 1905) Biographical Entry |accessdate=2007-08-03 |date= |publisher=Australian Dictionary of Biography, Online Edition}}</ref> and [[Harry Price]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ull.ac.uk/historic/hplbiog.shtml |title=Harry Price Library Biography |accessdate=2007-08-03 |date= |publisher=Senate House Library, University of London}}</ref> Despite this, these magician authenticated the mediums Piper and Gladys Osborne Leonard, who never were caught in cheat. In the 1920s, [[Magic (illusion)|magician]] and escapologist [[Harry Houdini]] said that researchers and observers had not created experimental procedures which absolutely preclude fraud.<ref name=Houdini>{{cite book |last=Houdini |first=Harry |authorlink= |title=A Magician Among the Spirits |publisher=Arno Press |date=1987 |pages= |url= |doi=}}</ref> In 1979, magician and [[debunker]] [[James Randi]] perpetrated a hoax, now referred to as [[Project Alpha]]. Randi trained two young magicians and sent them under cover to [[Washington University]]'s McDonnell Laboratory with the specific aim of exposing poor experimental methods and the credulity thought to be common in parapsychology. Although no formal statements or publications from the McDonnell laboratory supported the likelihood that the effects demonstrated by the two magicians were genuine, both of Randi's trainees reportedly deceived experimenters over a period of four years with demonstrations of supposedly [[Spoon bending|telekinetic metal bending]].<ref name=randi83>Randi, J. (1983). The Project Alpha experiment: Part one: the first two years. ''Skeptical Inquirer'', Summer issue.</ref> Such methodological failures have been cited as evidence that most, if not all, extraordinary results in parapsychology derive from error or fraud.
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| − | ===Criticism of experimental results===
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| − | Although some critical analysts feel that parapsychological study is [[scientific]], they are not satisfied with its experimental results.<ref name=Alcock03>
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| − | {{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=James E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |volume=10 |issue=6-7 |pages=29–50 |date=2003 |url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref name=Hyman>{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |date=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> Skeptical reviewers contend that apparently successful experimental results in psi research are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained researchers, or methodological flaws than to genuine psi effects.<ref name=Akers>{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |date=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html
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| − | |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L.
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| − | |title=Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |date=1987 |url= http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=Richard |authorlink= |coauthors=Smith, Matthew, et al. |title=Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |date=1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lobach |first=E. |coauthors=Bierman, D. |title=The Invisible Gaze: Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects |work=Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention |url=http://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |date=2004 |pages=77–90 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> For example, the data from the PEAR laboratory has been criticized by researchers such as statistics professor [[Jessica Utts]] and psychologist [[Ray Hyman]]. Utts has stated that these experiments suffered numerous problems with regard to randomization, statistical baselines and the application of statistical models, and that the significance values quoted in the experiments were meaningless due to defects in experimental and statistical procedures of the studies.<ref> {{cite journal|title=Critique Of The Pear Remote-viewing Experiments|journal=Journal of Parapsychology|date=1992-06|first=George P.|last=Hansen|coauthors=Utts, Jessica; Markwick, Betty|volume=56|issue=2|pages=97–113 |id= |url=http://www.tricksterbook.com/ArticlesOnline/PEARCritique.htm|format=|accessdate=2007-07-02}}</ref>
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| − | Because [[psi]] is a negatively defined concept, a typical measure of the evidence for such phenomena in parapsychological experiments is statistical deviation from chance expectation. However, critics point out that statistical deviation from chance is, strictly speaking, only evidence of a statistical anomaly, or that some unknown variable was causing the deviation from chance. Hyman contends that even if experiments could be made to reproduce the findings of certain parapsychological studies under specific conditions, this would be a far cry from concluding that psychic functioning has been demonstrated.<ref name=Hyman33>{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/si/9603/claims.html |title=The Evidence for Psychic Functioning: Claims vs. Reality |accessdate=2007-07-02 |last=Hyman |first=Ray |date=1996 |publisher=[[CSICOP]]}}</ref> It has also been stated that assuming psi exists is [[affirming the consequent]] or [[begging the question]]. Reasoning that (1) if a person is psychic, then that individual will do better than chance in experiments, and (2) since that person does better than chance, then, (3) that person must be psychic, would be considered the fallacy of affirming the consequent.<ref name= Carrol>{{cite web |last=Carroll |first=Robert Todd |authorlink= |title=psi assumption |work=Skepdic.com |publisher=The Skeptics Dictionary |date=2005 |url=http://www.skepdic.com/psiassumption.html |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref>
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| − | ===Selection bias and meta-analysis===
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| − | [[Selection bias| Selective reporting]] has been offered by critics as an explanation for the positive results reported by parapsychologists. Selective reporting is sometimes referred to as a "file drawer" problem, which arises when only positive study results are made public, while studies with negative or null results are not made public.<ref name="pmid16822164"/> Selective reporting has a compounded effect on [[meta-analysis]], which is a statistical technique that aggregates the results of many studies in order to generate sufficient statistical [[power (statistics)|power]] to demonstrate a result that the individual studies themselves could not demonstrate at a [[statistical significance|statistically significant]] level. For example, a recent [[meta-analysis]] combined 380 studies on [[psychokinesis]],<ref name="pmid16822162"/> including data from the [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab| PEAR lab]]. It concluded that, although there is a statistically significant overall effect, it is not consistent and relatively few negative studies would cancel it out. Consequently, [[Publication bias| biased publication]] of positive results could be the cause.<ref name="Smee"/>
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| − | The popularity of meta-analysis in parapsychology has been criticized by numerous researchers, and is often seen as troublesome even within parapsychology itself.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Replication and Meta-Analysis in Parapsychology |journal=Statistical Science |date=1991 |first=Jessica |last=Utts |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=363–403 |url=http://anson.ucdavis.edu/~utts/91rmp.html |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> Critics have said that parapsychologists misuse meta-analysis to create the incorrect impression that statistically significant results have been obtained which indicate the existence psi phenomena.<ref name=Stenger>{{cite web |last=Stenger |first=Victor J. |authorlink= |title=Meta-Analysis and the Filedrawer Effect |work=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry |date=2002 |url=http://www.csicop.org/sb/2002-12/reality-check.html |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref>
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| − | Researcher J. E. Kennedy has argued that concerns over the use of meta-analysis in science and medicine apply as well to problems present in parapsychological meta-analysis. As a [[post-hoc analysis]], critics emphasize the opportunity the method presents to produce biased outcomes via the selection of cases chosen for study, methods employed, and other key criteria. Critics claim analogous problems with meta-analysis have been documented in medicine, where it has been shown different investigators performing meta-analyses of the same set of studies have reached contradictory conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Proposal and Challenge for Proponents and Skeptics of Psi |journal=Journal of Parapsychology |date=2005 |first=J.E. |last=Kennedy |volume=68 |pages=157–167 |url=http://jeksite.org/psi/jp04.htm |accessdate=2007-07-29}}</ref>
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| − | ==Organizations and publications==
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| − | The lack of acceptance by mainstream science has led to a decline in academic ties to parapsychological research.<ref name="Smee"/> Still, there are some university laboratories that continue to conduct parapsychological experiments. Among these are the Koestler Parapsychology Unit at the [[University of Edinburgh]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koestler-parapsychology.psy.ed.ac.uk/ |title=Koestler Parapsychology Unit|publisher=University of Edinburgh|accessdate=2008-04-10}}</ref> the Parapsychology Research Group at [[Liverpool Hope University]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hope.ac.uk/research/parapsychology/ |title=Parapsychology Research Group|publisher=Liverpool Hope University|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the VERITAS Research Program at the [[University of Arizona]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://veritas.arizona.edu/ |title=The VERITAS Research Program|publisher=University of Arizona|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology Research Unit of [[Liverpool John Moores University]];<ref>{{cite web|author=Martin, Lloyd|date=2007-09-17|url=http://www.ljmu.ac.uk/psychology/80007.htm/ |title=Consciousness and Transpersonal Psychology|Publisher=Research Unit of Liverpool John Moores University|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes at the [[University of Northampton]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.northampton.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=473,2921704&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL |title=Center for the Study of Anomalous Psychological Processes|publisher=University of Northampton |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and the Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit at Goldsmiths [[University of London]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goldsmiths.ac.uk/apru/ |title=Anomalistic Psychology Research Unit|publisher=Goldsmiths, University of London |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> The [[Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research]], a well-known laboratory that conducted [[psychokinesis]] experiments, closed in February 2007.<ref>{{cite web|date=[[2007-02-10]]|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/ |title=Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research|publisher=Princeton University|accessdate=2007-07-11}}</ref>
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| − | Research organizations include the Parapsychological Association;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parapsych.org/ |title=Parapsychological Association|work=parapsych.org |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the ''Journal of Society for Psychical Research'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spr.ac.uk/ |title=Society for Psychical Research|work=spr.ac.uk|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the American Society for Psychical Research, publisher of the ''Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aspr.com/index.html |title=American Society for Psychical Research |work=aspr.com|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology, publisher of the ''Journal of Parapsychology'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhine.org/ |title=Rhine Research Center and Institute for Parapsychology|publisher=Rhine.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> the Parapsychology Foundation, publisher of the ''International Journal of Parapsychology'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parapsychology.org |title=Parapsychology Foundation |work=parapsychology.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and the Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research, publisher of the ''Australian Journal of Parapsychology''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aiprinc.org |title=Australian Institute of Parapsychological Research |work=aiprinc.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> The ''European Journal of Parapsychology'' is independently published.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ejp.org.uk/ |author=Stevens, Paul |coauthors=Ian Baker (eds)|location=Bournemouth University, BH12 5BB, UK |publisher=Poole House {{ISSN|0168-7263}}|title=European Journal of Parapsychology |accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref>
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| − | Organizations that encourage a critical examination of parapsychology and parapsychological research include the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]], publisher of the ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/ |title=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|work=csicop.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> and the [[James Randi Educational Foundation]], founded by [[magic (illusion)|magician]] and [[Scientific skepticism|skeptic]] [[James Randi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.randi.org/ |title=James Randi Educational Foundation |work=randi.org|accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref>
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| − | ==References==
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| − | #Bem, D. J.; Honorton, C. (1994). "Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer". Psychological Bulletin 115: 4–18.
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| − | #Parapsychological Association FAQ. Parapsychological Association (1995). Retrieved on 2007-07-02.
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| − | #http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html FAQ of the Parapsychological Association
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| − | #(1990) Science Framework for California Public Schools. California State Board of Education.
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| − | #Melton, J. G. (1996). Parapsychology. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0810394872.
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| − | #eloff, John (1977). Handbook of parapsychology. Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0442295766.
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| − | #Berger, Arthur S.; Berger, Joyce (1991). The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research. Paragon House Publishers. ISBN 1557780439.
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| − | #Wooffitt, Robin (2006). The Language of Mediums and Psychics: The Social Organization of Everyday Miracles. Ashgate. ISBN 075464202X.
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| − | #The History of the Rhine Research Center. Rhine Research Center. Retrieved on 2007-06-29.
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| − | #History of the Parapsychological Association. The Parapsychological Association. Retrieved on 2007-06-29.
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| − | #Melton, J. G. (1996). Parapsychological Association. In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology. Thomson Gale. ISBN 978-0810394872.
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| − | #John Archibald Wheeler (1998). Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-39304-642-7.
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| − | #Irwin, Harvey J. (2007). An Introduction to Parapsychology, Fourth Edition. McFarland & Company. ISBN 0786418338. Retrieved on 2007-07-31.
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| − | #Wagner, M. W; Monnet, M. (1979). "Attitudes of college professors toward extrasensory perception". Zetetic Scholar (5): 7–17.
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| − | #Odling-Smee, Lucy (2007-03-01). "The lab that asked the wrong questions". Nature (446): 10–11. doi:10.1038/446010a. Retrieved on 2007-06-29.
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| − | #Cardena, Etzel (2004). Varieties of Anomalous Experience: Examining the Scientific Evidence. American Psychological Association (APA). ISBN 1557986258.
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| − | #Radin, Dean (1997). The Conscious Universe: The scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0062515020.
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| − | #Bem, Daryl J.; Honorton, Charles (1995). "Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin 115 (1): 4–18. Retrieved on 2007-07-31.
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| − | #Dunne, Brenda; Jahn, Robert G. (2003). "Does psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of information transfer". Journal of Scientific Exploration 17 (2): 207–241. Retrieved on 2007-07-31.
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| − | #Dunne, Brenda J.; Jahn, Robert G. (1985). "On the quantum mechanics of consciousness, with application to anomalous phenomena". Foundations of Physics 16 (8): 721–772. doi:10.1007/BF00735378. ISSN (Print) 1572-9516 (Online) 0015-9018 (Print) 1572-9516 (Online). Retrieved on 2007-07-31.
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| − | #Bösch H, Steinkamp F, Boller E (2006). "Examining psychokinesis: the interaction of human intention with random number generators—a meta-analysis". Psychological bulletin 132 (4): 497–523. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.497. PMID 16822162.
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| − | #Radin, D.; Nelson, R.; Dobyns, Y.; Houtkooper, J. (2006). "Reexamining psychokinesis: comment on Bösch, Steinkamp, and Boller". Psychological bulletin 132 (4): 529–32; discussion 533–37. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.529. PMID 16822164.
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| − | | |
| − | ==Further reading==
| |
| − | | |
| − | *Parapsychology [http://www.amazon.com/Parapsychology-Richard-S-Phd-Broughton/dp/0345379586] ISBN 0345379586
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| − | | |
| − | *Hauntings and Poltergeists: Multidisciplinary Perspectives [http://www.amazon.com/Hauntings-Poltergeists-Multidisciplinary-James-Houran/dp/0786409843] ISBN 0786409843}}
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| − | | |
| − | *An Introduction to Parapsychology,[http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Parapsychology-Harvey-J-Irwin/dp/0786430591/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1/104-0432038-4451952?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1183347101&sr=8-1]
| |
| − | ISBN 978-0786430598
| |
| − | | |
| − | *Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology [http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Occultism-Parapsychology-Gordon-Melton/dp/0810394871] ISBN 978-0810394872}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | *Entangled Minds: Extrasensory Experiences in a Quantum Reality [http://www.amazon.com/Entangled-Minds-Extrasensory-Experiences-Quantum/dp/1416516778] ISBN 978-1416516774}}
| |
| − | | |
| − | *{{cite book
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| − | | last = Randi
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| − | | first = James
| |
| − | | authorlink = James Randi
| |
| − | | coauthors =
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| − | | title = Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions
| |
| − | | publisher = Prometheus Books
| |
| − | | date = June 1982
| |
| − | | location =
| |
| − | | pages = 342
| |
| − | | url =
| |
| − | | doi =
| |
| − | | id = ISBN 0345409469 }}
| |
| − | | |
| − | *{{cite book
| |
| − | | last = Randi
| |
| − | | first = James
| |
| − | | authorlink = James Randi
| |
| − | | coauthors = Arthur C. Clarke
| |
| − | | title = An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural
| |
| − | | publisher = St. Martin's Griffin
| |
| − | | date = 1997
| |
| − | | location =
| |
| − | | pages = 336
| |
| − | | url =
| |
| − | | doi =
| |
| − | | id = ISBN 0312151195 }}
| |
| − | | |
| − | *{{cite book
| |
| − | | last = Sagan
| |
| − | | first = Carl
| |
| − | | authorlink = Carl Sagan
| |
| − | | coauthors = Ann Druyan
| |
| − | | title = The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark
| |
| − | | publisher = Ballantine Books
| |
| − | | date = 1997
| |
| − | | location =
| |
| − | | pages = 349
| |
| − | | url =
| |
| − | | doi =
| |
| − | | id = ISBN 0345409469 }}
| |
| − | | |
| − | *{{cite book
| |
| − | | last = Shepard
| |
| − | | first = Leslie
| |
| − | | authorlink =
| |
| − | | coauthors =
| |
| − | | title = Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology
| |
| − | | publisher = Thomson Gale
| |
| − | | date = 2000
| |
| − | | location =
| |
| − | | pages = 1939 pages
| |
| − | | url = http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Occultism-Parapsychology-Leslie-Shepard/dp/0810385708/ref=sr_1_15/104-0432038-4451952?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1183347101&sr=8-15
| |
| − | | doi =
| |
| − | | id = ISBN 978-0810385702 }}
| |
| − | ISBN 978-0754624509 }}
| |
| − | * [http://www.answers.com/topic/hans-holzer '''Holzer, Hans Ph.D.'''] Parapsychologist, Author: [http://www.bookideas.com/reviews/index.cfm?fuseaction=displayReview&id=1649 ''The Supernatural: Explaining the Unexplained''] Publisher: Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books, ©2003.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==External links==
| |
| − | * [http://www.parapsych.org/faq_file1.html Parapsychology FAQ] Frequently asked questions, by the [[Parapsychological Association]], a professional organization of scientists and scholars engaged in the study of psychic phenomena, affiliated with the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] in 1969.
| |
| − | * [http://findarticles.com/p/search?qt=parapsychology FindArticles.com Index] Large number of articles about parapsychology, from publications such as the ''[[Journal of Parapsychology]]'' and the ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]''.
| |
| − | * [http://csicop.org Committee for Skeptical Inquiry] Organization formed in 1976 to promote [[scientific skepticism]] and encourage the critical investigation of paranormal claims and parapsychology.
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| | [[Category: General Reference]] | | [[Category: General Reference]] |
| | [[Category:Parapsychology]] | | [[Category:Parapsychology]] |
